REMOT*^ 


A rrp 


ICearnxng  VLnt)  ^abor. 

LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

University  of  Illinois. 

CLASS.  BOOK.  VOLUME. 

^ 0 • G"  ^ ^ 


Accession  No.. 


/ 


NOTICE:  Return  or  renew  all  Library  Materials!  The  Minimum  Fee  for 
each  Lost  Book  is  $50.00. 

The  person  charging  this  material  is  responsible  for 
its  return  to  the  library  from  which  it  was  withdrawn 
on  or  before  the  Latest  Date  stamped  below. 

Theft,  mutilation,  and  underlining  of  books  are  reasons  for  discipli- 
nary action  and  may  result  in  dismissal  from  the  University. 

To  renew  call  Telephone  Center,  333-8400 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS  LIBRARY  AT  URBANA-CHAMPAIGN 


L161— 0-1096 


/ 


REMOTE  STORAGE 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE 

Book  III 

ELEMENTS  OF  ENOLISH 
COMPOSITION 

BY 

JOH:Nr  HAYS  GAEDIHEE 

Assistant  Professor  of  English  in  Harvard  University 

GEORGE  LYMAN  KITTREDGE 

Professor  of  English  in  Harvard  University 

AND 

SARAH  LOUISE  ARNOLD 

Dean  of  Simmons  College,  formerly  Supervisor  of 

Schools  in  Boston  ^ 


Boston,  U.S.A.,  and  London 
GINN  & COMPANY,  PUBLISHERS 
Cbe  ^[tbenseum 
1902 


Entered  at  Stationers’  Hall 


Copyright,  1902,  by 

J,  H.  Gardiner,  G.  L.  Kittredge,  and  S.  L.  Arnold 


ALL  rights  reserved 


PREFACE. 


The  present  volume,  which  has  been  prepared  in  response  to 
the  wish  of  many  teachers,  observes  throughout  the  principle  fol- 
lowed in  Books  I and  II  of  the  same  series  : it  considers  language 
in  its  relation  to  thought  and  the  expression  of  thought.  Like 
the  previous  volumes,  it  is  practical  rather  than  theoretical.  It 
connects  the  subject  of  composition  with  the  experiences  of 
f everyday  life,  on  the  one  hand,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  with  the 
study  and  appreciation  of  literature.  The  plan  of  the  book, 
though  simple  and  transparent,  is  novel  in  some  respects,  and 
may  justify  a word  of  explanation. 

Part  I is  in  itself  an  elementary  manual  of  composition.  It 
sets  forth,  in  plain  terms,  the  object  and  method  of  the  study ; it 
^ discusses  words,  sentences,  and  paragraphs ; it  explains  and  illus- 
^ trates  the  principles  of  unity,  variety,  emphasis,  and  transition ; 
^ it  treats  of  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  material ; and  it 
gives  abundant  practice  in  writing  letters  and  brief  essays.  It 
‘^may  be  used  by  younger  or  older  classes,  according  to  the  grading 
of  the  pupils  and  the  amount  and  character  of  their  previous  train- 
" ing  in  English  ; and  it  is  well  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  a review 
or  general  survey  of  the  subject  in  preparation  for  the  systematic 
- study  of  the  Forms  of  Discourse  in  Part  II.^  Thus  Part  I affords 
^ a means  of  transition  from  one  stage  of  progress  to  another  and 
^ enables  the  pupil  to  begin  his  more  advanced  work  in  composition 
with  a firm  grasp  on  the  first  principles  of  the  art  and  consider- 
able facility  in  applying  them. 

1 For  a further  statement  of  the  different  ways  in  which  Part  I may  he 
utilized,  see  Suggestions  to  Teachers,  p.  xiv. 

iii 


VI 


PREFACE. 


Dr.  Van  Dyke ; to  Messrs.  Longmans,  Green  & Co.  for  an  ex^tract 
from  Mr.  Weyman  ; and  to  The  Century  Company  for  Mr.  Riis’s 
anecdote  of  John  Binns.  Extracts  from  Hawthorne  are  used  by 
permission  of  Messrs.  Houghton,  Mifflin  & Co.,  publishers  of  the 
works  of  that  author.  Particular  acknowledgment  is  due  to 
Professor  W.  F.  M.  Goss,  of  Purdue  University,  who  has  not  only 
allowed  the  authors  to  reprint  a chapter  from  his  recent  treatise 
on  ‘‘Locomotive  Sparks''  (New  York,  John  Wiley  & Sons),  but 
has  given  them  liberty  to  adapt  it  to  their  purpose  by  a slight 
simplification  of  technicalities.  The  story  of  • “ Rumpelstiltskin  " 
is  taken  from  the  excellent  translation  of  Grimm  by  Margaret 
Hunt  (London,  George  Bell  & Sons).  § 


CONTENTS, 


INTRODUCTION. 

PAGE 

Suggestions  to  Teachers  ........  xiii 

PART  I.  ELEMENTS  OF  COMPOSITION. 

The  Uses  of  Composition  \ 3 

Specimens  of  Simple  Narrative  ......  8 

The  Subject  of  a Composition  ......  17 

Subjects  and  Titles 19 

Selection  of  Material  .......  21 

Arrangement  of  Material  .......  25 

Choice  of  Words  ........  29 

Synonyms 34 

Antonyms 37 

The  Sentence  as  a Unit  .......  42 

Variety  and  Smoothness  .......  45 

Variety  in  Sentences  ........  47 

Condensed  Expressions 51 

Variety  and  Emphasis 57 

Methods  of  Emphasis  ........  58 

Effectiveness  of  Sentences  ........  61 

Paragraphs  ..........  62 

Transition 71 

Oral  Composition  .......  73 

Letter- Writing  . . . . . . . . . 11  ^ 

The  Parts  of  a Letter 80 

Friendly  Letters  . 85 

Business  Letters  ^ 88 

' vii 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Invitations  and  Replies 92 

Business  Transactions 95 

Telegrams 99 

Announcements 101 

Advertisements ..........  103 

PART  II.  THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE. 


Two  Kinds  or  Composition  .......  107 

The  Forms  of  Discourse  .......  109 

Clearness  of  Thought HO 

Adaptation  to  the  Reader HO 

Narration HI 

Narratives  and  Stories 122 

Story-Telling 124 

Action  in  Story-Telling . 124 

The  Point  of  a Story 128 

The  Outline  of  a Story  ........  129 

Introduction  in  Story-Telling 131 

Introduction  Omitted 132 

Conclusion  of  a Story I34 

First  Person  in  Narration 136 

Conversation  in  Stories 138 

Conversation  Reporting  Action 139 

Conversation  Condensed  .......  139 

Material  for  Stories  .......  141 

Significance  of  Details 142 

Complication  of  Plot  . . . . . . . 144 

The  Narrative  in  Literature 147 

Exercises  in  Narration  .......  152 

Description  .........  157 

Description  and  Explanation  ......  163 

Pictures  and  Descriptions 164 

Sensations  in  Description 167 

Advantages  of  Description  169 

Description  of  a Place  . , . . . . 172 


CONTENTS. 

ix 

PAGE 

The  Time  in  Descriptions  ...... 

. . . 173 

Comparison  in  Description  ..... 

179 

Description  of  Persons 

. 181 

Character  in  Description  ..... 

183 

Description  not  an  Inventory 

. 187 

Description  in  Stories 

189 

Action  in  Description  ...... 

. 191 

The  Central  Point  in  a Description 

192 

Exercises  in  Description 

194 

Explanation  ....... 

199 

Importance  of  Explanation  . . ' . 

. 211 

The  Nature  of  Explanation 

211 

Notes  for  an  Outline  or  Plan 

214 

The  Key-Sentence 

215 

Arrangement  of  Topics  ...... 

. 216 

The  Introduction  in  Explanations  .... 

218 

Transition 

. 219 

Examples  in  Explanation  ..... 

221 

Explanation  by  Comparison  ..... 

. 222 

The  Use  of  Diagrams 

223 

Liveliness  in  Explanation  ..... 

. 224 

The  Conclusion  in  Explanations  .... 

225 

Explanatory  Description 

. 226 

Explanation  in  Recitations 

227 

Explanation  in  Written  Tests 

. 228 

Explanation  in  Conversations  .... 

229 

Abstracts  or  Summaries 

230 

Exposition  of  Character  ..... 

231 

Conclusion  of  Explanation 

. 232 

Exercises  in  Explanation 

234 

Criticism  . . 

. 241 

Argument  ........ 

244 

Three  Kinds  of  Argument 

. 245 

Arguments  of  Pact 

247 

Arguments  of  Theory  or  Principle  .... 

. 248 

Arguments  of  Policy  ...... 

249 

X 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Persuasion  ........  251 

The  Form  of  an  Argument  . . . . . • • 253 

Refutation 254 

Debates  ...  . 255 

Briefs  for  Arguments .258 


PART  III.  PARAGRAPHS,  SENTENCES,  WORDS. 


Paragraphs  ..........  263 

Unity  of  the  Paragraph  . . . . . . . . 264 

Means  of  Securing  Unity 265 

Means  of  Indicating  Unity 266 

Close  of  the  Paragraph 267 

Transition  ..........  268 

Transition  in  Sentences 270 

Coherence 272 

Exercises  in  Paragraphs 273 

Sentences 275 

Why  Variety  is  Requisite 275 

How  Sentences  Develop  Variety  . . . . . .277 

Kinds  of  Sentences 279 

Simple  Sentences  .........  280 

Use  of  Compound  Sentences 281 

Abuse  of  Compound  Sentences  .......  282 

Complex  Sentences 285 

Emphasis  in  Complex  Sentences 287 

Chains  of  Relatives  ........  288 

Variety  in  Sentences 288 

Antithesis 290 

Balanced  Sentences  .........  292 

Climax 293 

Parallel  Structure 295 

Periodic  Sentences 296 

Punctuation  of  Sentences  299 

Exercises  in  Sentences , . 301 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


PAGE 


Choice  of  Words  . . . 303 

The  Standa^  of  Usage 304 

Modern  Usage 305 

Words  not  in  Good  Use  . . . . . . . 307 

Poetical  Language 308 

Foreign  Words 308 

Colloquial  Language  and  Slang 310 

General  Principles  of  Choice  ......  312 

Correctness . .315 

Technical  Terms 316 

Precision . 318 

Aids  to  Precision  320 

Appropriateness  .........  322 

Special  Questions  of  Appropriateness  . . . . . 325 

Expressiveness 326 

General  and  Specific  Words 329 

Figures  of  Speech  . . . . . . . . . 330 

Similes  and  Metaphors 332 

Persot^ification  and  Apostrophe 335 

The  Use  of  Figures  of  Speech 337 

Conciseness  ..........  338 

Repetition 340 

Means  of  Increasing  one\s  Vocabulary  .....  343 

Clearness 345 

Selections . 346 

Supplementary  Exercises  .......  357 


APPENDIX. 

Common  Errors  in  Composition 383 

Rules  for  Capital  Letters 391 

Rules  of  Punctuation 392 

Business  Forms 398 

Prosody 401 

Index  ...........  419 


X 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Persuasion  ....  . , . . 251 

The  Form  of  an  Argument . 253 

Refutation  ..........  254 

Debates  ...  . 255 

Briefs  for  Arguments . 258 

PART  III.  PARAGRAPHS,  SENTENCES,  WORDS. 

Paragraphs 263 

Unity  of  the  Paragraph  264 

Means  of  Securing  Unity 265 

Means  of  Indicating  Unity 266 

Close  of  the  Paragraph 267 

Transition 268 

Transition  in  Sentences 270 

Coherence 272 

Exercises  in  Paragraphs 273 

Sentences  . . . . . . . . . .275 

Why  Variety  is  Requisite 275 

How  Sentences  Develop  Variety 277 

Kinds  of  Sentences  ........  279 

Simple  Sentences  .........  280 

Use  of  Compound  Sentences 281 

Abuse  of  Compound  Sentences 282 

Complex  Sentences  . . . . . . . . 285 

Emphasis  in  Complex  Sentences  ......  287 

Chains  of  Relatives  ........  288 

Variety  in  Sentences 288 

Antithesis  ..........  290 

Balanced  Sentences  .........  292 

Climax  ...........  293 

Parallel  Structure 295 

Periodic  Sentences  ........  296 

Punctuation  of  Sentences  299 

Exercises  in  Sentences 301 


CONTENTS.  XI 

PAGE 

Choice  of  Words  .......  303 

The  Standaiji  of  Usage 304 

Modern  Usage 305 

Words  not  in  Good  Use  . 307 

Poetical  Language 308 

Foreign  Words 308 

Colloquial  Language  and  Slang 310 

General  Principles  of  Choice  ......  312 

Correctness . .315 

Technical  Terms 316 

Precision 318 

Aids  to  Precision 320 

Appropriateness 322 

Special  Questions  of  Appropriateness 325 

Expressiveness 326 

General  and  Specific  Words  .......  329 

Figures  of  Speech  . . . . . . . . . 330 

Similes  and  Metaphors  ........  332 

Perso^ifiTcatioii  and  Apostrophe  ......  335 

The  Use  of  Figures  of  Speech 337 

Conciseness 338 

Repetition 340 

Means  of  Increasing  one’s  Vocabulary  .....  343 

Clearness 345 

Selections  .........  . 346 

Supplementary  Exercises  .......  357 

APPENDIX. 

Common  Errors  in  Composition  ......  383 

Rules  for  Capital  Letters 391 

Rules  of  Punctuation 392 

Business  Forms 398 

Prosody 401 

Index  419 


INTKODUCTION. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHEKS. 

THE  OBJECTS  IN  VIEW. 

A COURSE  in  composition  should  accomplish  two  results : it 
should  enable  the  pupil  to  make  his  thought  clear  to  others,  and 
it  should  develop  his  apprecmtion  of  good  literature. 

These  two  objects  have  determined  the  plan  and  the  contents 
of  the  present  book.  In  both  text  and  exercises  the  pupil’s 
own  experience  is  kept  in  view,  and  he  is  shown  how  to  utilize 
it  for  the  purposes  of  composition.  He  is  encouraged  to  find 
material  in  his  favorite  reading,  in  his  games,  and  in  the  life  and 
occupations  with  which  he  is  familiar.  The  examples  and  the 
exercises  cover  a wide  field,  and  admit  of  selection  and  of  adap- 
tation to  the  needs  of  the  individual.  Thus  the  chasm  which 
ordinarily  separates  study  from  actual  experience  may  be  effectu- 
ally bridged. 

At  the  same  time,  the  plan  of  the  book  ensures  a growing 
appreciation  of  literature.  A large  number  of  selections  have 
been  provided  as  models,  and  these  are  made  the  basis  of  both 
critical  study  and  constructive  exercises.  There  are  also  abundant 
references  to  the  best  writers  and  many  observations  which  will 
guide  the  pupil  in  his  reading.  ^ In  this  way  the  necessary  and 
intimate  connection  between  practice  in  composition  and  the 
study  and  enjoyment  of  good  literature  is  brought  home  to  the 
pupil’s  mind. 

1 See,  for  example,  “Literature,”  “Poetry,”  “Prose,”  in  the  Index, 
xiii 


XIV 


INTRODUCTION. 


1 

PLAN  or  THE  BOOK. 

The  plan  of  the  book  is  shown  in  the  Table  of  Contents.  The 
work  is  divided  into  three  parts. 

Part  I makes  a preliminary  survey  of  the  whole  subject.  The 
immature  student  is  not  ready  for  an  exhaustive  treatment  of 
the  more  advanced  principles  until  he  has  had  some  training  in 
thosa  which  are  more  elementary.  In  this  Part,  therefore,  the 
simpler  kinds  of  composition  are  treated,  with  abundant  practice 
in  the  choice  of  words,  the  construction  of  sentences  and  para- 
graphs, and  the  writing  of  letters  and  brief  essays.  Such  a gen- 
eral survey  gives  perspective  and  a sense  of  proportion,  and  thus 
enables  the  pupil  to  proceed  intelligently  to  the  more  detailed 
study  required  in  Parts  II  and  III. 

Further,  experience  has  shown  that  most  classes  need  to  review 
the  elements  of  composition  before  entering  upon  more  advanced 
work.  Part  I provides  for  such  a review.  If  the  class  is  homo- 
geneous and  has  been  well  prepared,  the  review  may  be  brief  and 
summary.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  preliminary  English  course 
has  been  fragmentary  and  meagre,  or  if  the  pupils  vary  a good 
deal  in  their  acquirements,  the  review  must  be  thorough  and 
systematic.  Under  such  circumstances,  a whole  year  may  well 
be  devoted  to  Part  I. 

Part  II  treats  of  the  longer  forms  of  composition,  — narration, 
description,  explanation,  and  argument.  These  four  ‘‘forms  of 
discourse are  presented  in  a simple,  logical  manner,  with  a great 
variety  of  analytical  and  constructive  exercises.  The  practical 
needs  of  everyday  life  are  kept  constantly  in  view,  and  the  work 
of  the  pupil  is  brought  into  the  closest  relation  both  with  his 
own  experience  and  with  his  study  of  literature.^  Explanation 
(or  exposition)  is  discussed  with  unusual  fulness,  and  the  sub- 
ject is  developed  in  accordance  with  a method  which  experience 
has  shown  to  be  productive  of  the  best  results.  The  pupil  is 
trained  to  apply  the  principles  of  exposition  in  preparing  for  his 

1 See,  for  example,  pp.  107-9,  128,  114-51,  108-71,  180,  185,  241-3, 


INTRODUCTION. 


XV 


ordinary  recitations  and  to  follow  them  in  the  practical  affairs 
of  life.  A special  section  on  literary  criticism  is  also  included 
in  this  Part. 

Part  III  is  the  logical  complement  of  Part  II.  It  deals  with 
the  main  principles  of  rhetorical  technique,  — paragraphing,  sen- 
tence structure,  and  the  choice  of  words.  These  subjects  have 
already  been  discussed,  in  an  elementary  way,  in  Part  I,  but  the 
pupil  is  now  prepared  to  study  them  in  greater  detail  and  with 
keener  discrimination.  Particular  pains  has  been  taken  to  make 
clear  the  true  bearing  of  all  these  principles.  They  are  presented, 
not  as  dogmas,  but  as  rules  of  reason,  dependent  for  their  cogency 
on  their  proved  usefulness  in  the  expression  of  thought.^ 

USE  OF  THE  SELECTIONS  AND  THE  EXERCISES. 

A work  on  composition  must  provide  two  sorts  of  material : 
the  text  should  explain  the  principles  of  composition  ; the  exer- 
cises should  illustrate  and  apply  those  principles.  The  author 
of  the  text  is  responsible  for  the  presentation  of  the  new  truth  to 
the  pupil ; but  he  can  merely  indicate  that  most  vital  element, 
the  application  of  the  principle  in  study  and  practice.  The 
direction  of  this  work  necessarily  falls  upon  the  teacher. 

In  the  present  book  the  authors  have  had  in  mind  a clear-cut 
plan  for  the  use  of  the  illustrative  exercises.  This  plan  is  in 
harmony  with  the  working  of  the  student’s  mind,  as  well  as  with 
the  natural  development  of  the  subject.  The  cooperation  of  the 
teacher  is,  however,  indispensable  if  the  best  results  are  to  be 
secured. 

Illustrative  selections  from  good  writers  accompany  each  divi- 
sion of  the  book.  These  should  first  be  studied  for  their  intrinsic 
interest,  before  the  succeeding  sections  are  read,  and  should  after- 
wards be  scrutinized,  in  connection  with  the  study  of  the  text,  as 
illustrations  of  the  principles  set  forth.  Thus  the  concrete 

1 See,  for  example,  the  sections  on  the  principles  of  choice  in  words 
(pp.  312-30)  and  the  definition  of  the  standard  of  usage  (x)p.  304-7). 


XVI 


INTRODUCTION. 


/ 

example  will  make  the  text  plain,  and  conscious  analysis  will 
impress  the  principle  involved. 

The  next  step  should  be  the  construction  of  original  examples 
to  illustrate  the  principles  laid  down  in  the  text.  Here  the 
selected  examples  which  have  been  analyzed  will  serve  as  models, 
but  they  should  not  be  too  closely  followed.  The  important 
point  is  that  the  pupil,  by  consciously  applying  in  the  construc- 
tive exercises  the  principles  expounded  in  the  text,  should  dis- 
cover that  these  principles  are  indispensable  guides  in  his  own 
familiar  speech  and  writing.  The  more  closely  the  exercises  are 
associated  with  the  actual  experience  of  the  pupils,  the  more 
effect  will  the  principle  have  in  directing  their  spoken  and 
written  English. 

Comparison  and  criticism  of  the  written  exercises  should 
follow.  This  practice  is  far  more  real  to  the  pupils  than  the 
criticism  of  a classic  selection  which  comes  to  them  as  a finished 
product  ; for  they  have  seen  their  own  composition  in  the 
making,  and  it  deals  with  their  own  experiences  or  with  some 
subject  with  which  they  are  already  familiar.  Individual  con- 
struction and  class  criticism  should  therefore  predominate  over 
critical  study  and  analysis  of  the  models. 

After  the  pupils  have  applied  the  principles  in  their  own  writ- 
ing and  have  become  consciously  critical  of  the  compositions  pre- 
pared in  the  class,  they  are  ready  for  the  critical  study  of  other 
illustrations  found  in  books.  It  should  be  remembered,  however, 
that  the  power  to  construct  is  more  valuable  than  the  critical 
faculty.  The  latter  should  be  cultivated  chiefly  as  a test  of  one’s 
own  writing,  and  as  conducive  to  a keener  enjoyment  of  good 
literature. 

The  order  of  study  may  be  summarized  as  follows  : — 

1.  Reading  the  illustrative  selections  for  their  own  sake. 

2.  Study  of  the  text,  with  constant  reference  to  the  models  for 
illustration. 

3.  Constructive  exercises,  to  apply  the  principles  laid  down  in 
the  text. 


INTRODUCTION. 


xvii 


4.  Study  and  criticism  of  written  exercises. 

5.  Search  for  other  illustrations  to  which  the  principles  may 
be  applied. 

6.  Critical  study  of  illustrations,  as  a help  in  securing  a 
standard  of  judgment. 

A considerably  larger  number  of  selections  has  been  provided 
than  is  actually  necessary  in  any  one  place.  There  are  two 
objects  in  this  : — first,  the  variety  of  the  selections  should  make 
it  clear  to  pupils  that  the  principles  laid  down  in  the  text  are  not 
arbitrary  laws,  but  are  founded  on  observed  facts  and  justified 
by  the  practice  of  good  writers ; and  secondly,  the  number  of 
selections  affords  the  teacher  a readily  accessible  store  of  examples 
for  the  illustration  of  each  lesson. 

VARIETY  IN  EXERCISES. 

In  the  use  of  the  exercises,  the  importance  of  variety  should 
never  be  forgotten.  Long  essays,  and  lessons  requiring  careful 
preparation,  should  alternate  with  oral  tests  or  with  practice  in  , 
extempore  writing  and  speaking.  Thus,  in  the  study  of  words,  a 
single  lesson  may  call  for  frequent  reference  to  the  Dictionary 
and  involve  two  or  three  hours  of  continuous  application.  Such 
a lesson  should  be  followed  by  a brisk  oral  exercise.  For  exam- 
ple, a list  of  words  may  be  given  to  one  pupil,  and  to  another  the 
names  of  the  members  of  the  class,  written  on  separate  cards. 
The  first  pupil  may  then  read  the  first  word  in  his  list,  and  the 
second  pupil  the  name  on  the  first  card ; the  person  whose  name 
is  called  should  respond  at  once,  using  the  word  correctly  in  a 
well-constructed  sentence.  These  word-matches  keep  the  class 
on  the  alert  and  cultivate  promptitude  in  thought  and  speech. 

CLASS  CRITICISM. 

Every  pupil  sets  a high  value  on  the  opinions  of  his  associates. 
The  teacher’s  corrections  are  a part  of  the  school  routine ; those 
of  a classmate  seem  real  and  practical.  It  is  well,  therefore,  to 


xviii  INTRODUCTIOISr. 

let  the  pupils  criticise  each  other’s  essays.  Exchanges  between 
schools  may  also  be  arranged  on  the  following  plan : — 

Two  classes  of  equal  rank  write  on  the  same  subject,  with  defi- 
nite regulations  and  a fixed  limit  of  length.  The  essays  are  not 
signed,  but  are  marked  with  a letter  or  number.  Each  pupil 
corrects  a composition  from  the  other  school.  He  should  mark 
the  paper  carefully,  giving  a general  estimate  of  its  qualities, 
indicating  specific  errors,  and  suggesting  improvements.  The 
essays  are  returned  and  are  read  before  the  class,  along  with  the 
criticism,  which  is  then  discussed. 

This  plan  has  proved  remarkably  successful  wherever  it  has 
been  tried.  The  personal  element  is  removed,  and  pupils  who 
give  slight  heed  to  ordinary  class  criticism  respond  promptly  to 
the  unbiased  judgment  of  an  outsider.  Such  exchanges  should 
be  made  at  least  three  times  a year  wherever  the  conditions  are 
favorable. 


DAILY  THEMES. 

The  training  acquired  in  writing  occasional  essays  may  well  be 
supplemented  by  practice  in  daily  themes.”  These  should  not 
exceed  a paragraph  or  two  in  length.  They  should  be  carefully 
criticised,  but  not  rewritten  unless  they  betray  carelessness  in 
spelling,  punctuation,  or  handwriting.  If  a subject  is  inadequately 
treated,  it  is  better  to  let  the  pupil  try  again  on  another  occasion. 

The  subjects  of  daily  themes  should  be  as  varied  as  possible 
and  should  ordinarily  be  chosen  by  the  pupil.  He  should  be  led 
to  see  the  interest  and  significance  of  little  things  and  common- 
place occurrences.  One  day  he  may  be  directed  to  give  special 
attention  to  sounds ; another  day,  to  colors ; another,  to  move- 
ments, — and  so  on,  until  he  observes  such  details  spontaneously. 
Sometimes  the  theme  may  be  a description  or  a story,  sometimes 
an  explanation,  sometimes  an  expression  of  opinion  or  feeling. 
Once  or  twice  a week  it  is  well  to  select  a subject  from  the  pupil’s 
other  studies,  — an  incident  from  history,  the  description  of  an 
experiment,  a piece  of  translation. 


INTRODUCTION. 


XIX 


Whatever  the  subject,  special  attention  should  be  given  to 
unity;  the  pupil  should  be  required  to  make  a single  point,  or  to 
produce  a single  effect,  within  the  limit  of  space  assigned  to  the 
composition. 


TRANSLATION. 

The  study  of  foreign  languages  exerts  a powerful  influence,  for 
good  or  evil,  on  the  pupil’s  English.  Slovenly  habits  of  transla- 
tion will  inevitably  react  on  his  original  composition.  On  the 
other  hand,  patient  search  for  the  right  word  will  enlarge  his 
vocabulary,  and  experiments  in  arrangement  will  both  increase 
his  respect  for  the  English  idiom  and  lend  smoothness  and  flexi- 
bility to  his  style. 

When  a difficult  idiom  occurs  in  a foreign  writer,  it  may  be 
profitably  discussed  by  the  teacher  and  the  class.  The  teacher 
should  point  out  its  exact  force  and  shade  of  meaning,  and  the 
pupils  should  then  suggest  one  English  expression  after  another 
until  the  right  phrase  is  found.  Such  discussion  of  differences 
in  idiom  will  do  much  to  cultivate  the  linguistic  i^ense,  and,  in 
particular,  to  beget  a feeling  for  the  characteristic  excellences  of 
different  languages. 

The  pupils  should  never  be  allowed  to  rest  content  with  a 
version  that  destroys  the  life  of  the  original.  They  should 
understand  that  the  vivacity  of  a French  story,  the  homely  charm 
of  a German  fairy  tale,  the  weight  and  lucidity  of  Caesar,  and 
the  polished  eloquence  of  Cicero  are  to  be  reproduced  in  transla- 
tion as  well  as  the  literal  meaning  of  the  words. 

COLLEGE  REQUIREMENTS. 

The  requirements  for  admission  to  college  emphasize  three 
phases  of  writing,  — subject-matter,  logical  structure,  and  literary 
form.  Students  are  expected  to  express  themselves  “ with  clear- 
ness and  accuracy”;  they  are  required  to  be  accurate  in  spelling, 
punctuation,  and  grammar ; and  they  are  reminded  that  good 


XX 


INTRODUCTION. 


English  in  their  other  examinations  will  serve  as  evidence  of 
proficiency  in  composition.  The  examiners  look  for  clearness, 
force,  and  good  taste. 

Pupils  should  be  taught  that  these  are  not  arbitrary  require- 
ments, but  that  the  qualities  which  they  demand  are  profitable 
to  every  one,  whether  he  goes  to  college  or  not. 

The  teacher’s  criticism  should  cover  all  three  phases  of  com- 
position, and  the  text-book  should  be  tested  from  the  same 
points  of  view.  Does  the  instruction,  with  its  accompanying 
exercises,  give  the  pupil  the  power  to  tell  what  he  knows,  to 
arrange  his  thoughts  logically,  and  to  express  himself  in  well- 
chosen  language  ? Does  he  apply  in  his  everyday  writing  what 
he  learned  in  the  grammar  school  about  spelling,  punctuation, 
and  grammar?  Is  his  study  of  literature  a help  to  his  com- 
position, and  does  his  composition  enable  him  to  enjoy  and 
appreciate  literature  ? These  are  questions  which  every  teacher 
should  have  constantly  in  mind  ; for  they  will  prove  useful  guides 
in  organizing  and  simplifying  his  instruction. 


Part  I. 

ELEMENTS  OF  COMPOSITION. 


1 


Part  I. 


ELEMENTS  OF  COMPOSITION. 


SECTION  1. 

THE  USES  OF  COMPOSITIOK 

The  president  of  a great  manufacturing  corporation, 
in  an  address  to  the  graduating  class  of  a manual  train- 
ing school,  once  laid  down  this  principle : The  secret 
of  success  in  life  is  to  do  whatever  you  are  set  to  do  a 
little  better  than  the  people^ about  you  are  doing  it.” 
He  was  speaking  to  boys  who  were  to  begin  their  career 
by  working  with  their  hands ; but  his  principle  applies 
equally  well  to  that  other  sort  of  work  which  some  of 
them  were  soon  to  be  doing  with  their  minds.  For  the 
real  difference  between  the  foreman  of  a shop  or  mill 
and  the  men  whom  he  directs,  is  that  he  understands 
the  work  better  than  they  do.  The  better  he  under- 
stands it,  the  higher  he  can  rise.  Yet,  if  he  cannot  make 
other  men  understand  how  he  thinks  the  work  should 
be  done,  it  will  make  little  difference  how  much  he 
knows  about  it;  for  if  all  his  knowledge  must  stay 
locked  up  in  his  own  mind,  though  it  may  help  him  to 
be  a better  workman  himself,  it  certainly  will  not  carry 
him  to  those  higher  positions  where  he  must  direct  the 
work  of  others. 


3 


4 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


The  higher  a man  rises  in  any  calling,  the  more  diffi- 
cult and  complicated  are  the  things  that  he  is  required 
to  explain;  and  the  more  he  will  need,  therefore,  to 
understand  how  to  use  words  and  how  to  put  them  together. 
In  practical  life,  then,  the  ability  to  speak  and  write  clearly 
and  effectively  is  necessary  to  success. 

But  life  is  not  all  toil  and  struggle  and  getting  ahead. 
Not  only  in  your  work,  but  outside  of  it,  you  are  continu- 
ally coming  across  pleasant  and  interesting  things.  You 
may  visit  a new  place,  or  play  a new  game,  or  meet  agree- 
able people,  or  do  something  that  you  have  never  done 
before;  and  you  have  always  the  still  more  satisfying 
pleasure  of  your  friends  and  the  things  you  are  used  to. 
Now,  whenever  anything  interesting  happens,  you  are 
eager  to  talk  about  it,  so  that  other  people  may  under- 
stand it  and  share  your  pleasure.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  you  are  hurt  or  in  trouble,  you  instinctively  desire 
to  tell  somebody  what  ails  you. 

Here  again  you  need  the  power  to  put  words  together. 
An  exclamation  may  show  that  you  are  delighted  or 
troubled  ; but  you  cannot  get  far  with  such  disjointed 
words.  Even  a dog  can  tell  you  by  his  various  barks 
and  whinings  whether  he  is  happy  or  unhappy.  You 
must  put  words  together  into  sentences,  and  put  a good 
many  sentences  together,  before  you  can  give  your 
friends  any  clear  notion  of  what  your  feelings  are. 
Thus  we  come  back,  not  only  to  the  use  of  words,  but^ 
to  composition  itself,  that  is,  to  the  art  of  putting  words  and 
sentences  together. 

Clearly,  then,  the  art  of  composition  is  something  that 
you  need  every  day  of  your  life.  In  reality  it  is  no 
new  thing  to  you.  Consciously  or  unconsciously,  you 


I 

) 


THE  USES  OF  COMPOSITION. 


5 


have  been  practising  this  art  from  your  childhood,  — in 
your  earliest  lessons  at  school,  in  oral  messages,  in  every 
note  or  letter  that  you  have  written. 

The  word  composition  means  nothing  more  than  “ put- 
ting together,”  or  “combining.”  You  compose,  there- 
fore, when  you  say  “The  sky  is  blue,”  for  you  put 
together  the  idea  of  sky  and  the  idea  of  blue  into  a new 
thought  which  embodies  them  both.  Every  sentence  you 
utter  is  a composition  in  a small  way.  When  you  write 
a letter,  you  compose  on  a larger  scale ; for  now  you  are 
combining  not  only  words,  but  sentences  also. 

Everybody  composes,  then ; but  to  compose  well  requires 
both  study  and  practice.  Meanwhile,  without  some 
power  of  composing  you  cannot  recite  your  lessons,  you 
cannot  direct  a stranger  to  the  railroad  station,  you  can- 
not tell  your  friends  about  the  things  that  interest  you. 
In  short,  you  can  neither  explain  anything  that  you 
know  to  some  one  who  does  not  already  know  it,  nor 
make  others  understand  your  feelings  and  share  them, 
unless  you  have  learned  to  choose  your  words  skilfully 
and  to  put  them  together  in  an  effective  way. 

Your  acquaintance  with  the  art  of  composition  must 
be  continuous  and  progressive.  You  will  use  this  art 
not  merely  at  school,  but  throughout  your  life.  It  is 
needed  in  oral  speech,  — as  in  addressing  a meeting  or 
arguing  before  a committee,  — and  in  written  discourse, 
— reports  and  business  letters,  or,  it  may  be,  essays 
and  stories.  The  more  active  and  efficient  you  are,  the 
more  you  will  need  the  art  of  composition. 

Now,  whatever  we  do  at  all  is  worth  doing  well. 
This  truth  is  so  obvious  that  it  has  taken  form  in  a 
proverb.  It  is  recognized  in  all  skilled  labor,  in  every 


6 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


art  and  craft,  and  in  all  the  professions.  A young  girl 
practises  hour  after  hour,  year  after  year,  that  she  may 
acquire  skill  in  playing  the  piano.  The  members  of  a 
boat  crew  or  a football  team  have  to  work  hard  and 
patiently  to  master  their  art.  The  lawyer  and  the 
physician  give  years  to  the  study  and  practice  of  their 
profession  before  they  achieve  success.  Why?  Because 
without  this  long  and  careful  study  and  practice  they 
cannot  hope  to  do  their  work  well. 

So  it  is  with  the  art  of  composition.  Even  a child  can 
talk  to  his  playmates  and  make  himself  understood 
after  a fashion ; so  much  he  learns  from  observing  and 
imitating  those  about  him.  But  an  adequate  knowledge 
of  the  mother  tongue  — such  a knowledge  as  enables 
us  to  understand,  appreciate,  and  enjoy  good  books  — 
comes  only  through  study;  and  the  power  to  express 
our  thoughts  and  feelings  fully  and  clearly,  in  writing 
or  in  oral  speech,  is  not  secured  without  regular  and 
suitable  training. 

The  aim  of  this  book  is  to  guide  the  learner  in  such  study 
and  practice  as  shall  develop  the  power  both  of  appreciation 
and  of  expression. 

SECTION  2.1 

The  following  exercises  will  test  your  present  power 
of  oral  and  written  expression,  and  will  reveal  your  need 
of  further  study. 

1 It  is  not  expected  that  every  pupil  shall  work  through  all  these 
exercises.  The  teacher  will  find  it  easy  to  make  an  appropriate  selection. 
As  soon  as  the  pupils  discover  that  they  already  have  material  for  original 
composition  but  need  training  in  the  art  of  expression,  they  may  proceed 
to  the  sections  that  follow. 


EXERCISES. 


i 

In  each  exercise  describe  the  object  or  process  orally, 
as  if  you  were  talking  familiarly  with  a friend.  Then 
write  your  description. 

Compare  your  description  with  those  written  by  other 
members  of  the  class. 

1.  Tell  how  a tree  is  felled. 

2.  Give  directions  for  playing  tennis. 

3.  Tell  how  to  harness  a horse. 

4.  Describe  an  oak  tree,  showing  how  it  differs  from  a maple. 

5.  Tell  a beginner  how  to  row  a boat. 

6.  Tell  your  sister  how  to  make  chocolate  caramels. 

7.  Describe  the  building  of  a wharf. 

8.  Tell  how  corn  is  raised. 

9.  Tell  how  a tin  pan  can  be  mended. 

10.  Describe  a bicycle,  telling  how  it  is  constructed  and  how 
it  is  operated.  To  what  accidents  is  it  liable? 

11.  Describe  an  electric  car,  telling  how  the  motive  power  is 
applied. 

12.  Tell  how  bread  is  made. 

13.  Describe  the  manufacture  of  gingham. 

14.  Describe  a spinning  wheel. 

15.  Describe  the  work  of  a locomotive  engineer. 

16.  Give  directions  for  playing  the  game  of  golf. 

17.  Describe  a game  of  golf. 

18.  Describe  a barbed-wire  fence. 

19.  Describe  the  water  supply  of  your  city  or  town. 

20.  Tell  how  a letter  is  mailed,  carried,  and  delivered. 

21.  Describe  the  building  of  a road.  (1)  Tell  by  what  author- 
ity it  is  planned  and  built  ; (2)  describe  the  actual  process. 

22.  Explain  in  exact  language  how  the  surface  of  a triangle  is 
measured. 

23.  Tell  how  a chimney  is  built. 

24.  Compare  a lobster  and  a crab. 

25.  Compare  a grasshopper  and  a bumblebee. 


8 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  3.1 

Read  the  following  extract  from  Franklin’s  ‘‘Auto- 
biography.” It  is  a straightforward  story  of  everyday 
experience,  written  in  a simple  and  forcible  style. 

FIRST  DAY  IN  PHILADELPHIA. 

By  Benjamin  Franklin. 

I have  been  the  more  particular  in  this  description  of  my 
journey,  and  shall  be  so  of  my  first  entry  into  that  city,  that  you 
may  in  your  mind  compare  such  unlikely  beginnings  with  the 
figure  I have  since  made  there.  I was  in  my  working  dress,  my 
best  clothes  being  to  come  round  by  sea.  I was  dirty  from  my 
journey ; my  pockets  were  stuffed  out  with  shirts  and  stockings, 
and  I knew  no  soul,  nor  where  to  look  for  lodging.  I was 
fatigued  with  travelling,  rowing,  and  want  of  rest;  I was  very 
hungry,  and  my  whole  stock  of  cash  consisted  of  a Dutch  dollar 
and  about  a shilling  in  copper.  The  latter  I gave  the  people  of 
the  boat  for  my  passage,  who  at  first  refused  it,  on  account  of  my 
rowing ; but  I insisted  on  their  taking  it,  a man  being  sometimes 
more  generous  when  he  has  but  a little  money  than  when  he  has 
plenty,  perhaps  through  fear  of  being  thought  to  have  but  little. 

Then  I walked  up  the  street  gazing  about,  till,  near  the  market- 
house,  I met  a boy  with  bread.  I had  made  many  a meal  on 
bread,  and,  inquiring  where  he  got  it,  I went  immediately  to  the 
baker’s  he  directed  me  to,  in  Second  Street,  and  asked  for  biscuit, 
intending  such  as  we  had  in  Boston ; but  they,  it  seems,  were  not 
made  in  Philadelphia.  Then  I asked  for  a threepenny  loaf,  and 
was  told  they  had  none  such.  So,  not  considering  or  knowing 
the  difference  of  money,  and  the  greater  cheapness  nor^  the 

1 For  full  directions  as  to  the  use  of  Sections  3-5,  see  “ Suggestions 
to  the  Teacher,”  in  the  Introduction. 

2 This  use  of  nor  is  hardly  in  accordance  with  present  usage,  but  was 
proper  in  Franklin’s  time.  See  “ The  Mother  Tongue,”  Book  II,  p.  xxi. 


STORIES 


9 


names  of  his  bread,  I bade  him  give  me  threepenny-worth  of  any 
sort.  He  gave  me,  accordingly,  three  great  puify  rolls.  I was 
surprised  at  the  quantity,  but  took  it,  and,  having  no  room  in  my 
pockets,  walked  off  with  a roll  under  each  arm,  and  eating  the 
other.  Thus  I went  up  Market  Street  as  far  as  Fourth  Street, 
passing  by  the  door  of  Mr.  Reed,  my  future  wife’s  father  ; when 
she,  standing  at  the  door,  saw^  me,  and  thought  I made,  as  I 
certainly  did,  a most  awkward,  ridiculous  appearance.  Then  I 
turned  and  went  down  Chestnut  Street  and  part  of  Walnut 
Street,  eating  my  roll  all  the  way,  and,  coming  round,  found 
myself  again  at  Market  Street  wharf,  near  the  boat  I came  in,  to 
which  I went  for  a draught  of  the  river  water ; and,  being  filled 
with  one  of  my  rolls,  gave  the  other  two  to  a woman  and  her 
child  that  came  down  the  river  in  the  boat  with  us  and  were 
waiting  to  go  farther. 

Thus  refreshed,  I walked  again  up  the  street,  which  by  this 
time  had  many  clean-dressed  people  ill  it,  who  were  all  walking 
the  same  way.  I joined  them,  and  thereby  was  led  into  the 
great  meeting-house  of  the  Quakers  near  the  market.  I sat 
down  among  them,  and,  after  looking  round  a while  and  hearing 
nothing  said,  being  very  drowsy  through  labor  and  want  of  rest 
the  preceding  night,  I fell  fast  asleep,  and  continued  so  till  the 
meeting  broke  up,  when  one  was  kind  enough  to  rouse  me. 
This  was,  therefore,  the  first  house  I was  in,  or  slept  in,  in 
Philadelphia.! 

SECTION  4. 

Read  the  following  short  story  by  Mr.  Riis.  It  gives 
a vivid  account  of  an  exciting  incident  in  the  life  of  a 
great  city. 

Notice  the  difference  between  Franklin’s  style  and 
that  of  Mr.  Riis.  Can  you  account  for  this  difference  ? 

iThe  teacher  will  find  it  interesting  to  read  Franklin’s  account  of  how 
he  learned  to  write.  See  Franklin’s  Autobiography,”  Bigelow’s  edition, 
Vol.  I,  Part  I,  pp.  109  ff. 


10 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


THE  STORY  OF  A FIRE.i 
By  Jacob  A.  Riis. 

Thirteen  years  have  passed  since,  but  it  is  all  to  me  as  if  it 
had  happened  yesterday,  — the  clanging  of  the  fire-bells,  the 
hoarse  shouts  of  the  firemen,  the  wild  rush  and  terror  'of  the 
streets ; then  the  great  hush  that  fell  upon  the  crpwd ; the  sea  af 
upturned  faces  with  the  fire  glow  upon  it;  and  up  there,  against 
the  background  of  black  smoke  that  poured  from  roof  and  attic, 
the  boy  clinging  to  the  narrow  ledge,  • so  far  up'  thatr  it  seemed 
humanly  impossible  that  help  could  ever  come. 

But  even  then  it  was  coming.  Up  from  the  street,  while  the 
crew  of  the  truck-company  were  laboring  with  the  heavy  exten- 
sion ladder  that  at  its  longest  stretch  was  many  feet  too  short, 
crept  four  men  upon  long,  slender  poles  with  cross-bars,  iron- 
hooked  at  the  end.  Standing  in  one  window,  they  reached  up 
and  thrust  the  hook  through  the  next  one  aboA^e,  then  mounted  a 
story  higher.  Again  the  crash  of  glass,  and  again  the  dizzy 
ascent.  Straight  up  the  wall  they  crept,  looking  like  human 
flies  on  the  ceiling,  and  clinging  as  close,  never  resting,  reaching 
one  recess  only  to  set  out  for  the  next ; pearer  and  nearer  in  the 
race  for  life,  until  but  a single  span  separated  the  foremost  froip 
the  boy.  And  now  the  iron  hook  fell  at  his  feet,  and  the  firemap 
stood  upon  the  step  with  the  rescued  lad  in  his  arms,  just  as  the 
pent-up  flame  burst  lurid  from  the  attic  window,  reaching  with 
impotent  fury  for  its  prey.  The  next  moment  they  were  safe 
upon  the  great  .ladder  waiting  to  receive  them  below. 

Then  such  a shout  went  up  ! Men  fell  on  each  other’s  necks, 
and  cried  and  laughed  at  once.  Strangers  slapped  one  another 
on  the  back  with  glistening  faces,  shook  hands,  and  behaved 
generally  like  men  gone  suddenly  mad.  Women  wept  in  the 
street.  The  driver  of  a car  stalled  in  the  crowd,  Avho  had  stood 
through  it  all  speechless,  clutching  the  reins,  whipped  his  horses 

1 From  “ The  Century,”  Vol  LV,  p.  483  (by  permission  of  The  Century 
Company). 


STORIES. 


into  a gallop  and  drove  away,  yelling  like  a Comanche,  to  relieve 
his  feelings.  The  boy  and  his  rescuer  were  carried  across  the 
street  without  any  one  knowing  how.  Policemen  forgot  their 
dignity  and  shouted  with  the  rest.  Fire,  peril,  terror,  and  loss 
were  alike  forgotten  in  the  one  touch  of  nature  that  makes  the 
whole  world  kin. 

Fireman  John  Binns  was  made  captain  of  his  crew,  and  the 
Bennett  medal  was  pinned  on  his  coat  on  the  next  parade  day. 


SECTION  5. 

Read  the  following  extract  from  Scott.  It  gives  an 
account  of  an  important  historical  event  in  simple, 
dignified  language. 

THE  BATTLE  OF  BANNOCKBURN.  i 
By  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

King  Edward  the  Second  assembled  one  of  the  greatest  armies 
which  a king  of  England  ever  commanded.  There  were  troops 
brought  from  all  his  dominions.  Many  brave  soldiers  from  the 
French  provinces  which  the  king  of  England  possessed  in  France, 
— many  Irish,  many  Welsh,  — and  all  the  great  English  nobles 
and  barons,  with  their  followers,  were  assembled  in  one  great 
army.  The  number  was  not  less  than  one  hundred  thousand 
men. 

King  Robert  the  Bruce  summoned  all  his  nobles  and  barons  to 
join  him,  when  he  heard  of  the  great  preparations  which  the  king 
of  England  was  making.  They  were  not  so  numerous  as  the 
English  by  many  thousand  men.  In  fact,  his  whole  army  did 
not  very  much  exceed  thirty  thousand,  and  they  were  much  worse 
armed  than  the  wealthy  Englishmen ; but  then,  Robert,  who  was 
at  their  head,  was  one  of  the  most  expert  generals  of  the  time ; 


1 From  “ Tales  of  a Grandfather.” 


12 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


and  the  officers  he  had  under  him  were  his  brother  Edward,  his 
nephew  Randolph,  his  faithful  follower  the  Douglas,  and  other 
brave  and  experienced  leaders,  who  commanded  the  same  men 
that  had  been  accustomed  to  fight  and  gain  victories  under  every 
disadvantage  of  situation  and  numbers. 

The  king,  on  his  part,  studied  how  he  might  supply,  by  address 
and  stratagem,  what  he  wanted  in  numbers  and  strength.  He 
knew  the  superiority  of  the  English,  both  in  their  heavy-armed 
cavalry,  which  were  much  better  mounted  and  armed  than  that 
of  the  Scots,  and  in  their  archers,  who  were  better  trained  than 
any  others  in  the  world.  Both  these  advantages  he  resolved  to 
provide  against.  With  this  purpose,  he  led  his  army  down  into 
a plain  near  Stirling,  called  the  Park,  near  which,  and  beneath 
it,  the  English  army  must  needs  pass  through  a boggy  country, 
broken  with  watercourses,  while  the  Scots  occupied  hard,  dry 
ground.  He  then  caused  all  the  ground  upon  the  front  of  his 
line  of  battle,  where  cavalry  were  likely  to  act,  to  be  dug  full  of 
holes,  about  as  deep  as  a man’s  knee.  They  were  filled  with 
light  brushwood,  and  the  turf  was  laid  on  the  top,  so  that  it 
appeared  a plain  field,  while  in  reality  it  was  all  full  of  these  pits, 
as  a honeycomb  is  of  holes.  He  also,  it  is  said,  caused  steel  pikes, 
called  calthrops,  to  be  scattered  up  and  down  in  the  plain,  where 
the  English  cavalry  were  most  likely  to  advance,  trusting  in  that 
manner  to  lame  and  destroy  their  horses. 

When  the  Scottish  army  was  drawn  up,  the  line  stretched 
north  and  south.  On  the  south,  it  was  terminated  by  the  banks 
of  the  brook  called  Bannockburn,  which  are  so  rocky  that  no  troops 
could  attack  them  there.  On  the  left,  the  Scottish  line  extended 
near  to  the  town  of  Stirling.  Bruce  reviewed  his  troops  very 
carefully ; all  the  useless  servants,  drivers  of  carts,  and  such  like, 
of  whom  there  were  very  many,  he  ordered  to  go  behind  a height, 
afterwards,  in  memory  of  the  event,  called  the  Gillies’  Hill,  that 
is,  the  Servants’  Hill.  He  then  spoke  to  the  soldiers,  and  expressed 
his  determination  to  gain  the  victory,  or  to  lose  his  life  on  the 
field  of  battle.  He  desired  that  all  those  who  did  not  propose  to 


STORIES. 


13 


fight  to  the  last  should  leave  the  field  before  the  battle  began, 
and  that  none  should  remain  except  those  who  were  determined 
to  take  the  issue  of  victory  or  death,  as  God  should  send  it. 

When  the  main  body  of  his  army  was  thus  placed  in  order, 
. the  king  posted  Randolph,  with  a body  of  horse,  near  to  the 
chm’ch  of  St.  Ninian’s,  commanding  him  to  use  the  utmost  dili- 
gence to  prevent  any  succors  from  being  thrown  into  Stirling 
Castle.  He  then  despatched  James  of  Douglas,  and  Sir  Robert 
Keith,  the  Mareschal  of  the  Scottish  army,  in  order  that  they 
might  survey,  as  nearly  as  they  could,  the  English  force,  which 
was  now  approaching  from  Falkirk.  They  returned  with  infor- 
mation that  the  approach  of  that  vast  host  was  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  terrible  sights  which  could  be  seen,  — that  the 
whole  country  seemed  covered  with  men-at-arms  on  horse  and 
foot,  — that  the  number  of  standards,  banners,  and  pennons  (all 
flags  of  different  kinds)  made  so  gallant  a show  that  the  bravest 
and  most  numerous  host  in  Christendom  might  be  alarmed  to  see 
King  Edward  moving  against  them. 

It  was  upon  the  23d  of  June  (1314)  the  king  of  Scotland  heard 
the  news,  that  the  English  army  were  approaching  Stirling.  He 
drew  out  his  army,  therefore,  in  the  order  which  he  had  before 
resolved  on.  After  a short  time,  Bruce,^  who  was  looking  out 
anxiously  for  the  enemy,  saw  a body  of  English  cavalry  trying 
to  get  into  Stirling  from  the  eastward.  This  was  the  Lord  Clifford, 
who,  with  a chosen  body  of  eight  hundred  horse,  had  been  detached 
to  relieve  the  castle. 

See,  Randolph,”  said  the  king  to  his  nephew,  ‘There  is  a rose 
fallen  from  your  chaplet.”  By  this  he  meant  that  Randolph  had 
lost  some  honor  by  suffering  the  enemy  to  pass  where  he  had  been 
stationed  to  hinder  them.  Randolph  made  no  reply,  but  rushed 
against  Clifford  with  little  more  than  half  his  number.  The  Scots 
were  on  foot.  The  English  turned  to  charge  them  with  their  lances, 
and  Randolph  drew  up  his  men  in  close  order  to  receive  the  onset. 
He  seemed  to  be  in  so  much  danger,  that  Douglas  asked  leave  of 
the  king  to  go  and  assist  him.  The  king  refused  him  permission. 


14 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


“ Let  Randolph,”  he  said,  “ redeem  his  own  fault ; I cannot 
break  the  order  of  battle  for  his  sake.”  Still  the  danger  appeared 
greater,  and  the  English  horse  seemed  entirely  to  encompass 
the  small  handful  of  Scottish  infantry.  So  please  you,”  said 
Douglas  to  the  king,  ‘-my  heart  will  not  suffer  me  to  stand 
idle  and  see  Randolph  perish.  I must  go  to  his  assistance.”  He 
rode  off  accordingly ; but  long  before  they  had  reached  the  place 
of  combat,  he  saw  the  English  horses  galloping  off,  many  with 
empty  saddles. 

Halt ! ” said  Douglas  to  his  men.  ‘‘Randolph  has  gained  the 
day ; since  we  were  not  soon  enough  to  help  him  in  the  battle,  do 
not  let  us  lessen  his  glory  by  approaching  the  field.”  Now  that 
was  nobly  done,  — especially  as  Douglas  and  Randolph  were 
always  contending  which  should  rise  highest  in  the  good  opinion 
of  the  king  and  the  nation. 

The  van  of  the  English  army  now  came  in  sight,  and  a number 
of  their  bravest  knights  drew  near  to  see  what  the  Scots  were 
doing.  They  saw  King  Robert  dressed  in  his  armor,  and  dis- 
tinguished by  a gold  crown,  which  he  wore  over  his  helmet.  He 
w^as  not  mounted  on  his  great  war-horse,  because  he  did  not 
expect  to  fight  that  evening.  But  he  rode  on  a little  pony  up 
and  down  the  ranks  of  his  army,  putting  his  men  in  order,  and 
carried  in  his  hand  a sort  of  battle-axe  made  of  steel.  When  the 
king  saw  the  English  horsemen  draw  near,  he  advanced  a little 
before  his  own  men,  that  he  might  look  at  them  more  nearly. 

There  was  a knight  among  the  English  called  Sir  Henry 
de  Bohun,  who  thought  this  would  be  a good  opportunity  to 
gain  great  fame  to  himself,  and  put  an  end  to  the  war,  by  killing 
King  Robert.  The  king  being  poorly  mounted,  and  having  no 
lance,  Bohun  galloped  on  him  suddenly  and  furiously,  thinking, 
with  his  long  spear  and  his  tall  powerful  horse,  easily  to  bear 
him  down  to  the  ground.  King  Robert  saw  him,  and  permitted 
him  to  come  very  near,  then  suddenly  turned  his  pony  a little  to 
one  side,  so  that  Sir  Henry  missed  him  with  the  lance-point,  and 
was  in  the  act  of  being  carried  past  him  by  the  career  of  his 


STORIES. 


15 


horse.  But  as  he  passed,  King  Robert  rose  up  in  his  stirrups, 
and  struck  Sir  Henry  on  the  head  with  his  battle-axe  so  terrible  a 
blow  that  it  broke  to  pieces  his  iron  helmet  as  if  it  had  been  a 
nutshell  and  hurled  him  from  his  saddle.  He  was  dead  before 
he  reached  the  ground.  This  gallant  action  was  blamed  by  the 
Scottish  leaders,  who  thought  Bruce  ought  not  to  have  exposed 
himself  to  so  much  danger  when  the  safety  of  the  whole  army 
depended  on  him.  The  king  only  kept  looking  at  his  weapon, 
which  was  injured  by  the  force  of  the  blow,  and  said,  “ I have 
broken  my  good  battle-axe.” 

The  next  morning,  being  the  24th  of  June,  at  break  of  day,  the 
battle  began  in  terrible  earnest.  The  English,  as  they  advanced  , 
saw  the  Scots  getting  into  line.  The  Abbot  of  Inchaffray  walked 
through  their  ranks  barefooted,  and  exhorted  them  to  fight  for 
their  freedom.  They  kneeled  down  as  he  passed,  and  prayed  to 
Heaven  for  victory.  King  Edward,  who  saw  this,  called  out, 
“ They  kneel  down,  — they  are  asking  forgiveness  ! ” ‘‘  Yes,” 

said  a celebrated  English  baron,  called  Ingelram  de  Umphraville, 
“but  they  ask  it  from  God,  not  from  us.  These  men  will  con- 
quer or  die  upon  the  field.” 

The  English  king  ordered  his  men  to  begin  the  battle.  The 
archers  then  bent  their  bows,  and  began  to  shoot  so  closely 
together  that  the  arrows  fell  like  fiakes  of  snow  on  a Christmas 
day.  They  killed  many  of  the  Scots,  and  might,  as  at  Falkirk 
and  other  places,  have  decided  the  victory  ; but  Bruce,  as  I told 
you  before,  was  prepared  for  them.  He  had  in  readiness  a body 
of  men-at-arms,  well-mounted,  who  rode  at  full  gallop  among  the 
archers,  and  as  they  had  no  weapons  save  their  bows  and  arrows, 
which  they  could  not  use  when  they  were  attacked  hand  to  hand, 
they  were  cut  down  in  great  numbers  by  the  Scottish  horsemen, 
and  thrown  into  total  confusion. 

The  fine  English  cavalry  then  advanced  to  support  their  archers 
and  to  attack  the  Scottish  line.  But  coming  over  the  ground 
which  was  dug  full  of  pits,  the  horses  fell  into  these  holes,  and 
the  riders  lay  tumbling  about,  without  any  means  of  defence,  and 


16 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


unable  to  rise  from  the  weight  of  their  armor.  The  Englishmen 
began  to  fall  into  general  disorder  ; and  the  Scottish  king,  bring- 
ing up  more  of  his  forces,  attacked  and  pressed  them  still  more 
closely. 

On  a sudden,  while  the  battle  was  obstinately  maintained  on 
both  sides,  an  event  happened  which  decided  the  victory.  The 
servants  and  attendants  on  the  Scottish  camp  had,  as  I told  you, 
been  sent  behind  the  army  to  a place  afterwards  called  the 
Gillies’  Hill.  But  when  they  saw  that  their  masters  were  likely 
to  gain  the  day,  they  rushed  from  their  place  of  concealment  with 
such  weapons  as  they  could  get,  that  they  might  have  their  share 
in  the  victory  and  in  the  spoil.  The  English,  seeing  them  come 
suddenly  over  the  hill,  mistook  this  disorderly  rabble  for  a new 
army  coming  up  to  sustain  the  Scots,  and,  losing  all  heart,  began 
to  shift  every  man  for  himself.  Edward  himself  left  the  field  as 
fast  as  he  could  ride.  A valiant  knight.  Sir  Giles  de  Argentine, 
much  renowned  in  the  wars  of  Palestine,  attended  the  king  till 
he  got  him  out  of  the  press  of  the  combat.  But  he  would  retreat 
no  farther.  <‘It  is  not  my  custom,”  he  said,  « to  fly.”  With 
that  he  took  leave  of  the  king,  set  spurs  to  his  horse,  and  calling 
out  his  war-cry  of  Argentine  ! Argentine  ! ” he  rushed  into  the 
thickest  of  the  Scottish  ranks,  and  was  killed. 

The  English  never  before  or  afterwards,  whether  in  France  or 
Scotland,  lost  so  dreadful  a battle  as  that  of  Bannockburn,  nor 
did  the  Scots  ever  gain  one  of  the  same  importance.  Many  of  the 
best  and  bravest  of  the  English  nobility  and  gentry  lay  dead  on 
the  field ; a great  many  more  were  made  prisoners  ; and  the  whole 
of  King  Edward’s  immense  army  was  dispersed  or  destroyed. 

The  English,  after  this  great  defeat,  were  no  longer  in  a con- 
dition to  support  their  pretensions  to  be  masters  of  Scotland,  or 
to  continue,  as  they  had  done  for  nearly  twenty  years,  to  send 
armies  into  that  country  to  overcome  it.  On  the  contrary,  they 
became  for  a time  scarce  able  to  defend  their  own  frontiers  against 
King  Robert  and  his  soldiers. 


(THE  SUBJE 


SUBJECT  OF  A COMPOSITION.  17 


SECTION  6. 

THE  SUBJECT  OF  A COMPOSITION. 

If  we  think  of  composition,  in  its  simplest  form,  as  the 
expression  of  our  own  thoughts  and  feelings,  we  shall  readily 
discern  the  fact  that  we  speak,  or  write,  because  we 
have  something  to  say,  and  wish  or  are  impelled  to  say 
it.  Perhaps  you  have  not  yet  realized  that  the  same 
motive  underlies  every  book  that  is  written,  every  address 
that  is  made,  every  sermon  that  is  preached,  — some- 
body (the  author)  has  something  to  say,  and  says  it. 
We  may  be  interested,  or  instructed,  or  amused,  both 
by  the  thing  that  is  said  and  by  the  manner  in  which  it  is 
said. 

Here  we  have  at  once  the  two  main  elements  or  fac- 
tors of  composition  : first,  the  subject ; second,  the  treat- 
ment of  the  subject.  We  shall  have  much  to  say  of  the 
second  of  these  elements,  but  the  first  is,  after  all,  the 
more  important.  To  have  something  worth  communi- 
cating is  the  essential  point ; it  is  not  until  this  essen- 
tial is  secured  that  the  fashion  of  our  speech  or  writing 
becomes  of  particular  consequence. 

Just  here  the  student  ordinarily  finds  some  difficulty. 
He  knows  that  he  himself  is  intensely  interested  in 
Stanley’s  accounts  of  his  adventures  in  Africa,  or  in 
Peary’s  description  of  his  life  at  the  frozen  North;  but 
it  does  not  occur  to  him  that  his  own  experiences  are 
worth  transcribing  with  pen  and  ink.  Yet  they  are. 
Every  life  has  its  own  history.  Everybody  has  thoughts, 
feelings,  and  experiences  of  his  own,  which,  however 
trivial  they  may  seem,  have  a genuine  human  interest. 


18 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


Franklin  tells  us  about  the  everyday  occurrences  in  his 
life,  and  we  find  them  of  absorbing  interest.  Mr.  Riis 
saw  John  Binns’s  noble  deed  and  admired  it;  and  he 
makes  us,  too,  see  and  admire  it.  Scott  steeped  his 
mind  in  the  history  and  traditions  of  Scotland,  and  has 
left  us  a record  of  what  he  learned  and  thought.  So 
you,  when  you  speak  or  write,  have  your  own  thought  or 
experience  for  your  theme.  Express  it  freely  and  honestly. 

SECTION  7.1 

1.  Write  a list  of  fifty  things  about  which  you  know  some- 
thing. 

2.  Choose  one  subject  out  of  the  fifty,  and  tell  what  you  can 
about  it. 

3.  Cross  out  such  of  your  subjects  as  other  members  of  the 
class  have  named.  How  many  are  left? 

These,  then,  express  your  personal  knowledge  and  interests. 
W"e  may  infer  that  you  know  more  about  them  than  the  other 
pupils  do.  Already  you  have  individual  subjects  concerning 
which  you  may  enlighten  others. 

4.  Write  or  talk,  under  the  teacher’s  direction,  about  the 
remaining  subjects  on  your  list. 

5.  With  what  subjects  was  it  necessary  that  Sir  Walter  Scott 
should  be  acquainted  before  he  could  write  “ The  Battle  of  Ban- 
nockburn ”?  Make  a list  of  these  subjects. 

6.  Study  a list  of  the  writings  of  Longfellow,  Whittier,  Bur- 
roughs, Audubon,  Parkman,  Thoreau,  Scott,  Lowell,  Dickens, 
Holmes,  Tennyson,  Wordsworth,  Kipling,  or  Stevenson. ^ 

What  did  each  author  Icnow  about? 

7.  Write  or  talk  about  some  subject  suggested  by  Exercise  6. 

1 This  section  will  furnish  material  for  several  lessons. 

2 The  teacher  will,  of  course,  make  a selection  among  these  authors,  or 
will  distribute  them  among  the  class. 


SUBJECTS  AND  TITLES. 


19 


SECTION  8. 

SUBJECTS  AND  TITLES. 

Something  has  been  gained  when  your  composition 
has  been  well  named.  Since  the  title  introduces  the 
subject  to  the  reader,  it  should  therefore  express  your 
theme  plainly,  and  should  be  so  phrased  as  to  attract 
his  attention  and  arouse  his  interest. 

A subject  may  be  stated  in  general  or  in  specific 
terms.  Thus,  one  may  write  about  ‘‘War,”* or  “The 
Battle  of  Bannockburn.”  The  first  is  a general,  the 
second  a specific  subject.  It  is  likely  that  your  knowl- 
edge and  experience  are  unequal  to  the  larger  theme, 
and  it  would  therefore  be  more  modest  and  more 
sensible  to  limit  your  field  and  announce  the  specific 
subject.  “ Plays  and  Games  ” may  serve  as  a title  for 
an  essay  by  a writer  who  has  long  been  interested  in 
athletics  and  who  has  a broad  view  of  the  principles 
involved  and  the  various  applications  of  these  prin- 
ciples. “What  I Know  about  Tennis”  would  state 
more  clearly  your  own  experience,  and  would  have  the 
value  of  a frank  personal  contribution.  Tour  compo- 
sition may  be  even  more  interesting  than  that  of  a 
famous  athlete.  At  all  events,  to  state  the  subject  of 
your  essay  appropriately  and  honestly  will  enlist  the 
interest  and  sympathy  of  your  readers. 

Further,  a concrete,  specific  subject  is  in  itself  more 
interesting  to  the  ordinary  reader.  “A  Scotch  Collie” 
is  a better  subject  for  a boy’s  composition  than  “ The 
Intelligence  of  Dumb  Animals.”  The  boy  may  clearly 
and  fully  discuss  the  one,  while  he  would  hardly  do 


20 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


justice  to  the  other.  More  than  this,  the  reader  will 
be  interested  in  the  particular  dog  from  the  start,  while 
statements  about  dumb  animals  in  general  will  seem 
vague  and  pointless,  and  therefore  will  fail  to  arouse 
his  interest. 

Whenever  you  consult  a library  catalogue,  some  titles 
pique  your  curiosity  at  once.  Your  own  experience, 
then,  will  teacli  you  the  value  of  a well-chosen  title. 


SECTION  9. 


1.  Distinguish  between  the  pairs  of  titles  in  the  following 
list : — 


1.  Foreign  Travel. 

Afoot  in  Scotland. 

2.  My  Likes  and  Dislikes. 
My  Pet  Aversion. 

3.  War. 

The  Battle  of  Quebec. 

4.  Statesmanship. 

The  Life  of  Washington. 


5.  Experiments  in  Cookery. 
My  First  Loaf  of  Bread. 

6.  A Pleasant  Summer. 

My  Vacation  at  Bear  Camp. 

7.  A Thrilling  Rescue. 

How  Dick  Saved  the  Train. 

8.  Literature. 

My  Favorite  Story. 


2.  Select  from  some  catalogue  five  plain  and  clear  titles ; five 
explanatory  titles ; five  titles  which  give  you  no  clue  to  the 
contents  of  the  book ; five  titles  w'hich  arouse  your  curiosity  or 
interest ; five  titles  which  seem  to  you  very  well  chosen. 

3.  Suggest  other  titles  for  each  article  in  some  magazine. 

4.  Read  a selected  anecdote  in  the  class,  asking  the  other 
pupils  to  suggest  an  appropriate  title. 

5.  Suggest  other  titles  for  five  familiar  poems. 

6.  Copy  the  sub-titles  from  the  title-pages  of  five  different 
books. 

7.  Make  a list  of  the  titles  of  Scott’s  novels. 

8.  Make  a list  of  ten  titles  of  good  short  stories. 


SELECTION  OF  MATERIAL. 


21 


SECTION  10. 

SELECTION  OF  MATERIAL. 

Every  kind  of  writing  requires  some  knowledge  of 
the  art  of  composition.  Even  the  simplest  stories,  if  they 
are  well  told,  conform  to  its  principles.  An  example 
will  make  this  clear. 

Read  Franklin’s  account  of  his  “ First  Day  in  Phila- 
delphia” (p.  8).  It  is  a plain,  straightforward  story; 
yet,  simple  as  it  is,  you  will  discover,  when  you  study 
it,  that  to  tell  it  so  well  required  great  skill  in  com- 
posing, — far  more  than  comes  to  us  by  nature. 

Ill  the  first  place,  every  fact  in  Franklin’s  story  counts  for 
something.  His  stuffed  pockets  show  how  unpromising  a figure 
he  cut  for  one  who  was  to  be  a successful  man ; his  scanty  supply 
of  money  indicates  the  humble  beginning  of  his  fortunes;  the 
puffiness  of  the  rolls  brings  out  the  whole  grotesque  picture  viv- 
idly. Not  one  of  these  points  could  be  omitted  without  loss.  Yet 
Franklin  did  actually  leave  out  many  other  facts  in  order  to  make 
his  narrative  clear  and  vivid.  He  says  nothing  of  the  weather, 
nothing  of  the  appearance  of  the  streets  and  houses,  or  of  mud  or 
dust  or  distance,  — nothing  of  a hundred  things  that  may  well 
have  risen  in  his  memory  while  he  was  writing. 

It  is  largely  Franklin’s  skilful  choice  of  material 
that  makes  the  story  so  interesting.  In  other  words, 
Franklin  knew  what  to  put  in  and  what  to  leave  out : 
he  could  tell  a plain  tale  in  a straightforward  and  forcible 
way.  In  short,  he  understood  the  art  of  composition. 

Now  read  Mr.  Riis’s  “Story  of  a Fire”  (p.  10),  and 
study  it  as  you  have  studied  Franklin’s  “ First  Day  in 
Philadelphia.”  It  is  a narrative  of  quite  a different 


22 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


kind,  — rapid,  exciting,  full  of  striking  points ; yet  it 
illustrates  the  same  principle  of  selection. 

He  tells  of  the  noise  of  the  scene,  of  the  hushed  crowd  staring 
up  at  the  boy  on  the  narrow  ledge  ; then  of  the  slow  progress  of 
the  firemen  up  the  wall  with  their  scaling  ladders.  Thus  we  not 
only  feel  the  tumult  of  the  fire  but  share  the  suspense  with  which 
the  bystanders  watched  the  rescue. 

Finally,  examine  Sir  Walter  Scott’s  ‘‘  Battle  of 
Bannockburn  ” (pp.  11—16),  in  the  light  of  what  you 
have  discovered  in  the  other  two  examples. 

Scott  is  writing  history,  — that  is,  he  is  telling  the  story  of  an 
event  which  had  far-reaching  consequences.  He  includes  a num- 
ber of  details,  — the  ‘‘  gallant  show  ” of  the  English  army,  the  mul- 
titude of  their  flags,  what  Bruce  said  to  his  nephew,  Randolph,  — 
all  trifling  in  themselves,  but  serving  to  make  the  scene  real  to  us 
as  we  read.  Not  for  a moment,  however,  does  he  distract  our 
attention  from  the  main  point  of  his  narrative,  — the  great  battle 
that  changed  the  fate  of  Scotland.  For  the  details  are  not  taken 
at  random ; they  are  selected  with  the  nicest  care  from  many 
circumstances  that  might  have  been  mentioned. 

Scott  had  mastered  this  first  great  principle  of  the 
art  of  composition  : he  knew  how  to  select  his  material. 


From  the  study  of  these  three  examples  it  is  clear 
that  much  skill  is  required,  even  in  the  case  of  a simple 
story,  to  decide  what  to  leave  out  and  what  to  put  in. 
In  short,  selection  of  material  is  essential  to  the  art  of 
composition. 


SELECTION  OF  MATERIAL. 


23 


SECTION  11. 


I. 

Write  an  outline  of  Franklin’s  account  of  liis  ‘‘First 
Day  in  Philadelphia”  (p.  8). 

Enumerate  the  details  which  Franklin  introduces 
into  his  story. 

Omit  two  or  three  of  these  details  and  note  how 
much  is  lost. 

Suggest  other  details  which  might  have  been  included. 
Insert  them ; then  read  the  story.  Observe  the  effect. 


II. 

Proceed  with  “ The  Story  of  a Fire  ” (p.  10)  as  in 
Exercise  I. 

Do  the  same  with  the  third  paragraph  of  “ The  Battle 
of  Bannockburn  ” (p.  12). 

Continue  this  exercise  with  other  paragraphs. 

SECTION  12. 

Read  the  following  anecdote. 

Four-year-old  Robbie  had  been  ill  for  a fortnight.  Getting 
better,  he  went  about  his  play  as  usual,  but  his  little  hands  were 
limp  and  weak.  He  dropped  his  playthings,  came  to  his  mother’s 
chair,  and,  leaning  against  her  side,  said  wearily,  ‘‘  Take  me  up, 
mamma  ! I feel  just  like  a broken  toy.” 

Examine  the  anecdote.  Observe  every  detail.  Omit 
four-year-old,  and  read  the  story.  What  is  the  effect  of 
the  omission  ? What,  then,  is  the  use  of  this  detail  ? 

Proceed  in  the  same  manner  with  the  other  details. 


24 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  13. 

Read  the  following  anecdote. 

STOPPING  A PAPER. 

Horace  Greeley,  founder  of  the  ‘‘New  York  Tribune,’’  was 
once  interrupted  by  a subscriber  who  had  been  much  offended 
by'  an  article  in  the  paper.  The  angry  stranger  upbraided 
Mr.  Greeley  tempestuously  and  denounced  the  “ Tribune  ” in 
unmeasured  terms. 

The  editor,  who  was  busy  at  his  desk,  wrote  on  quietly,  page 
after  page,  as  if  he  heard  nothing  that  his  visitor  was  saying. 
After  the  torrent  of  abuse  had  ceased,  the  man,  disgusted  with 
Mr.  Greeley’s  silence,  turned  to  leave  the  room.  Then  Mr.  Greeley 
rose  politely  and  said  cordially,  “Don’t  go,  friend  ! Sit  down  and 
free  your  mind.  You  will  feel  better  for  it,  and  I shall  write 
better.  Don’t  go  ! ” 

A few  hours  later,  Mr.  Greeley  met  the  same  person  in  the 
street.  Greeting  him  heartily,  he  said,  “ I am  relieved,  Mr.  Smith, 
to  know  that  you  did  n’t  do  what  you  said  you  would.” 

“ What  was  that  ? ” 

“ You  said  you  were  going  to  stop  my  paper.  Now  that  would 
have  ruined  me  ; but  I have  just  been  at  the  office  and  I found 
everything  running  as  usual.” 

“ I stopped  my  subscription,  sir.” 

“ O,  was  that  all?  Well,  Mr.  Smith,  you  and  I must  remem- 
ber that  this  world  is  bigger  than  we  are.  It  will  run  on  after 
both  of  us  are  dead.” 

Study  this  anecdote,  according  to  the  plan  outlined 
in  Section  12. 


SECTION  14. 

Bring  to  the  class  some  short  anecdote.  Be  prepared 
to  study  it  as  in  Section  12. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  MATERIAL. 


25 


SECTION  15. 

ARRANGEMENT  OE  MATERIAL. 

Skill  in  the  choice  of  material  is  not  the  only  kind 
of  skill  needed  in  telling  a simple  story  well.  The 
material  selected  must  also  be  arranged  in  an  orderly  way, 
so  that  tlie  narrative  shall  move  smoothly  and  without 
confusion  or  interruption. 

Franklin  does  not  mention  the  mother  and  her  child  until 
they  are  necessary  to  conclude  the  incident  of  his  threepenny- 
worth  of  rolls.  Scott  explains  how  Bruce  prepared  the  ground 
in  front  of  his  line,  and  how  he  posted  Randolph,  before  he 
comes  to  the  battle  itself,  where  everything  must  move  swiftly. 

Thus,  even  in  the  simplest  stories,  the  art  of  com- 
position involves  not  merely  a wise  selection  of  material, 
but  also  skill  in  arranging  it.  In  practice,  as  we  shall 
soon  discover,  such  arrangement  depends  very  much  on 
the  construction  of  sentences  and  paragraphs.  The 
detailed  study  of  arrangement  must  therefore  be  post- 
poned until  we  come  to  those  subjects.  Meantime,  a 
few  practical  suggestions  will  be  of  assistance.^ 

1.  A story  should  generally  be  told  in  the  order  in  which  the 
facts  occurred ; that  is,  it  should  follow  the  order  of  time.  A 
narrator  who  is  continually  going  back  to  pick  up  broken  threads 
wearies  his  hearers  and  loses  their  attention.  A story  should 
move  on  with  directness  and  force,  like  an  arrow  to  the  mark. 
Nobody  will  listen  long  to  anything  that  confuses  his  mind. 
The  order  of  time  is  especially  important  in  narrative  letters  and 
in  biographical  sketches. 

1 These  suggestions  should  not  be  regarded  as  “rules.”  They  hold 
true  in  general ; but  arrangement  varies  infinitely,  as  circumstances  shift 
and  different  effects  are  sought  by  the  writer. 


26 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


2.  The  point  of  an  excellent  story  may  be  completely  lost 
because  the  hearer  is  ignorant  of  the  circumstances  under  which 
the  events  occurred.  Hence  one  must  often  outline  these  cir- 
cumstances in  advance. 

3.  Similarly,  a narrative  or  description  may  necessarily  contain 
some  term  or  terms  unknown  to  the  hearer.  In  this  case,  too,  an 
introduction  is  necessary,  in  order  to  define  or  make  clear  the  ideas 
in  question. 

4.  Introductions  should  not  be  longer  than  is  necessary.  Do 
not  make  the  porch  larger  than  the  house.^ 


SECTION  16. 

DEAL  EXEECISES  IX  STOEY-TELLIXG. 

In  each  of  the  following  exercises, 

1.  Think  out  your  story. 

2.  Prepare  an  outline  of  your  story. 

3.  Tell  the  story,  using  the  outline  to  guide  you. 

1.  Recount  some  anecdote  of  your  childhood. 

2.  Tell  the  story  of  the  boy  who  ‘‘  stood  on  the  burning  deck.” 

3.  Tell  the  story  of  ‘‘  Paul  Eevere’s  Ride.” 

4.  Recite  some  anecdote  of  your  school  experience. 

5.  Describe  some  picnic  in  which  you  have  taken  part. 

6.  Outline  briefly  one  of  the  stories  told  in  Longfellow’s 
“ Tales  of  a Wayside  Inn.” 

7.  Tell  in  your  own  words  one  of  T^sop’s  fables. 

8.  Imagine  that  you  are  asked  to  carry  a message.  Give  an 
account  (1)  of  the  conversation  between  yourself  and  the  sender 
of  the  message ; (2)  of  your  endeavor  to  fulfil  the  commission ; 
(3)  of  the  conversation  between  yourself  and  the  person  to  w^hom 

1 The  introduction  and  the  conclusion  will  be  specifically  treated  in  later 
sections  (see  pp.  131-5).  The  hints  here  given  are  intended  for  immediate 
use  in  practice. 


STORIES. 


27 


the  message  is  sent.  Recite  the  story  as  if  you  were  telling  it  to 
a third  person.  Recite  it  as  if  you  were  telling  the  story  to  the 
person  who  sent  the  message.^ 

9.  Prepare  to  tell  to  the  class  some  interesting  anecdote  that 
you  have  read. 

10.  Report  an  article  that  you  have  read  in  one  of  the  recent 
magazines. 

11.  Report  or  invent  a short  story  illustrating  some  lesson  in 
manners  or  conduct.  Do  not  express  the  moral,  but  take  care 
that  it  comes  out  clearly  in  the  story  itself. 


SECTION  17. 

Bring  to  the  class  three  stories  which  seem  to  you 
well  told.  Explain  why  you  think  so. 

Write  a brief  outline  of  the  stories  you  have  brought 
to  the  class. 

Using  your  outline  as  a basis,  explain  how  the  author 
has  selected  his  material.^ 

To  THE  Teacher.  — The  study  of  the  examples  in  Sections  3-5,  and 
of  the  stories  which  the  children  bring  to  the  class-room,  will  serve  for 
several  lessons.  The  teacher  should  point  out  the  different  character  of 
the  three  stories  (Franklin’s  plain  record  of  ordinary  occurrences,  Mr. 
Riis’s  account  of  an  exciting  incident  in  everyday  life,  and  Scott’s  narra- 
tive of  a great  historical  event)  and  should  explain  how  the  same  wise  choice 
of  material  appears  in  all.  Much  may  be  made  of  the  skill  with  which 
useless  details  are  omitted ; for  the  pupils  will  readily  supply  many  such 
details  and  will  have  no  difficulty  in  seeing  that  the  narrative  would  be 
clogged  by  their  insertion.  On  the  other  hand,  the  bareness  which  results 
from  complete  neglect  of  details  may  also  be  made  clear  to  the  pupils. 
Let  them  omit  the  apparently  trivial  incidents  in  Scott’s  “ Battle  of 
Bannockburn,”  for  example,  and  note  the  effect.  Such  exercises  will 
readily  connect  themselves  with  the  study  of  literature  and  of  history. 

1 In  this  case  you  will  review  the  circumstances  and  rehearse  the  pre- 
liminary conversation  before  telling  the  outcome  of  your  endeavor. 

2 See  p.  23  for  the  method  to  be  followed  in  this  exercise. 


28 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  18. 

In  the  following  exercises  centre  your  thought  upon 
the  arrangement  of  your  material,  following  the  suggestions 
which  have  just  been  given  (pp.  25-26). 

1.  Write  a letter  describing  a day  at  the  seashore  or  at  the 
mountains. 

2.  Two  boys  are  engaged  in  a quarrel.  Their  father  separates 
them  and  demands  an  explanation.  Explain  to  the  father,  as 
one  of  the  boys  might  have  done,  the  circumstances  leading  to 
the  quarrel. 

3.  A student  comes  to  the  class  without  knowing  his  lesson. 
After  the  recitation  the  teacher  asks  him  to  explain  his  failure. 
Recount  the  train  of  circumstances  which  prevented  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  lesson. 

4.  Find  in  your  History  some  account  of  an  important  event. 
Make  an  outline  of  the  order  of  occurrences,  and  recite  orally  to 
the  class  from  the  outline. 

5.  Select  a paragraph  or  an  incident  from  some  narrative  (as 
‘‘  David  Copperfield,”  for  example).  Prepare  an  introductory 
statement  explaining  the  circumstances  so  that  your  paragraph 
or  incident  may  be  understood  by  the  hearer. 

6.  Repeat  Exercise  5 with  another  selection. 

7.  Prepare  the  story  of  an  accident  which  might  occur  with  a 
bicycle,  an  automobile,  a pump,  or  some  other  machine. 

In  order  to  make  the  accident  plain,  explain  the  working  of 
the  machine  when  it  is  in  order,  naming  the  parts. 

8.  Make  a diagram  which  will  help  to  explain  the  accident 
mentioned  in  Exercise  7.  Draw  your  diagram  on  the  black- 
board, and  refer  to  it  while  making  your  explanation. 

9.  Turn  to  Section  4,  p.  10,  and  write  an  outline  of  the  second 
paragraph,  indicating  the  arrangem'ent  of  the  material. 

10.  Write  a letter  describing  the  events  of  yesterday  in  school. 
Exchange  letters  in  the  class,  and  criticise  the  arrangement  of  the 
material. 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS. 


29 


SECTION  19. 

I. 

Read  Franklin’s  ‘‘  First  Day  in  Philadelphia  ” (p.  8). 
Note  on  a sheet  of  paper  — 

1.  The  persons  who  come  into  the  narrative. 

2.  The  points  at  which  they  appear. 

3.  Whether  Franklin’s  first  acquaintance  with  them 
comes  at  the  point  at  which  they  appear  in  the  story 
or  earlier. 

4.  Explain  why  they  appear  in  the  story  when  they  do. 

II. 

1.  Examine  the  stories  which  you  have  written  in 
Section  18,  p.  28,  and  note  whether  any  person  or 
incident  appears  before  the  proper  time. 

2.  See  whether  you  can  remove  any  of  the  explana- 
tory details  from  the  more  active  and  exciting  parts  of 
your  narratives. 


SECTION  20. 

CHOICE  OF  WORDS. 

Selection  and  arrangement,  as  we  have  seen,  are  of 
great  importance.  But  they  are  not  everything.  The 
success  of  a story  depends  very  much  on  the  use  of 
appropriate  language  in  telling  it.  A good  story  may  be 
spoiled  by  unskilful  choice  of  words. 

Turn  again  to  Franklin’s  “ First  Day  in  Philadelphia  ” 
(p.  8).  See  how  plain  and  familiar  the  words  are. 
There  is  hardly  a single  one  which  a child  might  not 
use  in  telling  a story. 


30 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


Now  turn  to  Scott’s  narrative  (p.  11).  Here  you  will 
see  that,  though  everything  is  perfectly  clear,  there  are  a 
considerable  number  of  words  which  we  seldom  hear  in 
ordinary  conversation. 

Thus,  in  the  first  five  paragraphs  we  find  dominions,  forfeited, 
snuster,  diligence,  terminated,  and  stratagem. 

. How  many  of  these  words  can  you  define  and  use 
in  your  own  compositions  ? 

Turn  to  some  page  of  your  History  and  see  if  there 
are  any  words  which  are  familiar  to  you,  but  which  you 
cannot  define.  You  may  have  a general  idea  of  the 
meaning,  but  the  question  is,  ‘‘  What  do  the  words  mean 
exactly?”  Do  you  know  them  by  sight,  or  have  you 
a speaking  acquaintance  with  them?  Can  you  use 
them  freely  without  fear  of  saying  something  absurd  ? 

A little  study  of  this  sort  will  make  it  clear  that,  to 
tell  even  a simple  story  well,  one  needs  a considerable 
range  of  vocabulary  and  an  accurate  knowledge  of 
what  words  mean. 

SECTION  21. 

Make  a list  of  the  words  on  page  15  that  you  would 
not  be  likely  to  use  in  ordinary  conversation. 

Define  the  words  in  your  list  without  consulting  the 
Dictionary. 

Refer  to  the  Dictionary  in  order  to  test  the  accuracy 
of  your  definitions. 

SECTION  22, 

Study  the  meaning  of  the  italicized  words  in  the 
following  selection.  Use  the  words  in  various  sentences 
of  your  own. 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS. 


31 


WESTMINSTER  ABBEY. 

By  Washington  Irving. 

On  one  of  those  sober  and  rather  melancholy  days  in  the  latter 
part  of  autumn,  when  the  shadows  of  morning  and  evening 
almost  mingle  together,  and  throw  a gloom  over  the  decline  of  the 
year,  I passed  several  hours  in  rambling  about  Westminster 
Abbey.  There  was  something  congenial  to  the  season  in  the 
mournful  magnificence  of  the  old  pile  ; and,  as  I passed  its  thresh- 
old, it  seemed  like  stepping  back  into  the  regions  of  antiquity 
and  losing  myself  among  the  shades  of  former  ages. 

I entered  from  the  inner  court  of  Westminster  School,  through 
a long,  low,  vaulted  passage,  that  had  an  almost  subterranean  look, 
being  dimly  lighted  in  one  part  by  circular  perforations  in  the 
massive  walls.  Through  this  dark  avenue  I had  a distant  view  of 
the  cloisters,  with  the  figure  of  an  old  verger,  in  his  black  gown, 
moving  among  their  shadowy  vaults,  and  seeming  like  a spectre 
from  one  of  the  neighboring  tombs.  The  approach  to  the  abbey 
through  these  gloomy  monastic  remains  prepares  the  mind  for  its 
solemn  contemplation.  The  cloisters  still  retain  something  of  the 
quiet  and  seclusion  of  former  days.  The  gray  walls  are  discolored 
by  damps  and  crumbling  with  age ; a coat  of  hoary  moss  has 
gathered  over  the  inscriptions  of  the  mural  monuments,  and 
obscured  the  death’s-heads  and  other  funereal  emblems.  The 
sharp  touches  of  the  chisel  are  gone  from  the  rich  tracery  of  the 
arches ; the  roses  which  adorned  the  keystones  have  lost  their  leafy 
beauty  ; everything  bears  marks  of  the  gradual  dilapidations  of 
time,  which  yet  has  something  touching  and  pleasing  in  its  very 
decay. 

The  sun  was  pouring  down  a yellow  autumnal  ray  into  the 
square  of  the  cloisters,  beaming  upon  a scanty  plot  of  grass  in  the 
centre,  and  lighting  up  an  angle  of  the  vaulted  passage  with  a 
kind  of  dusky  splendor.  From  between  the  arcades  the  eye  glanced 
up  to  a bit  of  blue  sky  or  a passing  cloud,  and  beheld  the  sun-gilt 
pinnacles  of  the  abbey  towering  into  the  azure  heaven. 


32 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  23. 

Read  Wordsworth’s  ‘‘We  are  Seven.”  Study  the 
poem  carefully.  Then  write  the  narrative  simply,  in 
your  own  words,  using  the  third  person. 

Compare  your  narrative  with  the  poem.  Observe 
particularly  the  words  or  phrases  which  are  appropriate 
in  the  poetic  form  but  are  naturally  omitted  from  your 
prose  version. 


SECTION  24. 

Study  the  adjectives  and  other  descriptive  words  and 
phrases  in  Longfellow’s  “Wreck  of  the  Hesperus.” 
Select  from  the  poem  words  which  do  not  ordinarily 
occur  in  your  own  vocabulary,  and  use  them  in  suitable 
sentences. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — This  exercise  may  be  repeated  with  other  poems, 
as  opportunity  offers.  Good  material  is  afforded  by  any  of  the  following : — 
“ Paul  Revere’ s Ride  ” ; Mabel  Martin  ”,  “ Abraham  Davenport  ” ; “We 
are  Seven  ” ; “ Horatius  at  the  Bridge  ” ; “ John  Gilpin  ” ; “ The  Wreck  of 
the  Hesperus”;  “Hiawatha”  (in  extracts);  “Paradise  and  the  Peri”; 
“ In  School  Days  ” ; “ The  Wreck  of  the  Royal  George  ” ; “ The  Inchcape 
Rock  ” ; “ Enoch  Arden  ” ; “ The  High  Tide  on  the  Coast  of  Lincolnshire.” 

The  pupils  should  also  be  encouraged  to  select  poems  for  themselves. 
In  this  way  the  study  of  composition  may  he  brought  into  connection  with 
the  study  of  literature.  In  this  and  similar  exercises  the  pupils  should  not 
be  required  to  make  exhaustive  lists,  nor  should  they  be  harassed  with 
hair-splitting  distinctions.  In  such  study  “the  half  may  often  be  better 
than  the  whole.” 


SECTION  25. 

Try  to  make  definitions  for  the  familiar  objects  named 
below.  Do  this  without  using  the  Dictionary.  Then 
compare  your  definitions  with  those  in  the  Dictionary. 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS. 


33 


In  some  cases  a brief  and  clear  description  may  be 
substituted  for  the  definition. 

Schoolhouse,  clock,  book,  lamp,  picture,  bicycle,  barometer, 
tongs,  shovel,  scales,  flag,  flagstaff,  apothecary,  grocer,  physician, 
miner,  soldier,  ship,  yacht,  derrick,  railroad,  engineer,  engine, 
window,  curtain,  food,  beverage,  toy. 

SECTION  26. 

Suggest  appropriate  adjectives  which  may  be  applied 
to  the  objects  named  below. 


man 

fields 

clouds 

steak 

carpet 

ferns 

snow 

mill 

speech 

schoolhouse 

trees 

orange 

motive 

sunrise 

machine 

lamb 

vase 

violet 

brook 

essay 

factory 

deed 

moss 

crow 

workman 

voice 

rose 

orchard 

work 

chair 

knoll 

river 

wolf 

pitcher 

meadow 

garden 

book 

ship 

dove 

village 

fox 

statue 

thought 

farm 

smoke 

grape 

child 

poppy 

sky 

lion 

woman 

oak 

grass 

cabbage 

engine 

thistle 

fence 

serpent 

picture 

snowdrift 

SECTION  27. 

Make  a list  of  twenty  objects. 

Exchange  lists  with  another  pupil,  and  suggest  adjec- 
tives which  might  be  appropriately  applied  to  the  objects 
named  in  the  list  which  you  receive. 


84 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  28. 

SYNONYMS. 

The  English  language  is  rich  in  synonyms,  — that  is, 
in  different  words  for  the  same  idea. 

Thus,  instead  of  fatigued  (p.  8),  Franklin  might  have 
said  tired^  worn  out^  exhausted^  used  up^  or  weary ; for 
walked  he  might  have  said  went^  proceeded^  strolled^  or 
sauntered^  — and  so  on.  In  each  case,  one  of  the  other 
words  mentioned  would  have  expressed  almost  the 
same  idea,  but  with  some  slight  difference  of  meaning. 

Franklin  used  stuffed  out  (p.  8)  rather  than  filled  in  order  to 
suggest  his  awkward  and  uncouth  appearance.  He  wrote  walked, 
rather  than  sauntered  or  strolled,  because  he  wished  to  refer  merely 
to  his  moving  up  the  street,  rather  than  to  call  attention  to  his 
gait  or  manner.  In  every  instance  he  selected,  out  of  a number 
of  synonyms,  that  particular  one  which  would  express  the  precise 
shade  of  meaning  that  he  desired  to  convey. 

A knowledge  of  synonyms,  then,  and  of  their  dis- 
tinctions is  absolutely  necessary  in  every  kind  of  com- 
position. Without  such  knowledge  we  cannot  put  our 
thoughts  and  feelings  into  vivid  and  appropriate 
language. 


SECTION  29. 


I. 

1.  Write  down  such  synonyms  as  you  know  for 
nation^  liberty^  happy,  proud,  strong,  struggle,  weak, 
fear,  unworthy,  restless,  awkward,  diligence,  informa- 
tion, negligence,  delight,  active. 


SYNONYMS. 


35 


2.  Use  each  synonym  in  a sentence. 

3.  If  your  sentence  does  not  make  clear  the  exact 
meaning  of  the  synonym,  explain  its  meaning  as  dis- 
tinguished from  other  synonyms. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — This  exercise  may  be  repeated  according  to  the 
needs  of  the  class.  The  Dictionary  should  be  freely  used  by  the  pupil, 
sometimes  in  preparing  his  lists  of  synonyms,  at  others  in  explaining  or 
correcting  his  illustrative  sentences.  Thus  variety  may  be  secured.  An 
exercise  on  the  plan  of  an  old-fashioned  spelling  match  will  sometimes  be 
found  useful. 

It  is  easy  to  overdo  the  work  with  synonyms.  Particular  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  insist  on  hair-splitting  distinctions,  or,  in  general,  on  dis- 
tinctions that  are  more  delicate  than  the  pupil  can  be  expected  to 
appreciate. 

The  following  words  will  give  additional  practice  in  work  of  this  kind : 
abbreviate,  error,  omit,  destroy,  get,  speech,  combine,  throw,  answer,  care- 
less, cruel,  kind,  trouble,  inquiry,  pain,  pardon,  toil,  disdain,  seldom,  use- 
less, instruction,  energy,  recollect,  saunter,  progress,  confess,  affectionate, 
suppose,  regard,  town,  accident,  purpose,  remain,  return, puzzled,  mistake, 
follow,  civil,  pacify,  conquer. 

SECTION  30.1 

Use  the  synonyms  in  the  list  on  pages  36-37  according 
to  the  following  plan  : — 

1.  Make  a sentence  containing  the  first  synonym  in 
line  1.  Thus,  — 

He  abandoned  his  home  and  family. 

2.  Substitute  the  second  synonym  {desert)  in  your 
sentence.  Thus,  — 

He  deserted  his  home  and  family. 

3.  Consider  the  meaning  of  this  last  sentence,  and 
tell  how  it  differs  from  that  of  the  first.  If  there  is  no 
difference,  say  so. 

1 This  section  will  furnish  material  for  several  lessons. 


36 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


4.  Proceed  in  the  same  way  with  the  other  synonyms 
in  the  first  line. 

5.  If  any  sentence  does  not  make  sense,  reject  it, 
and  use  the  synonym  in  a new  sentence.  This  will 
help  you  to  see  the  difference  in  meaning. 

6.  Try  to  distinguish  between  sentences  in  which 
synonyms  may  be  interchanged,  and  others  in  which  but 
one  of  the  given  list  can  be  appropriately  used. 


I. 

1.  Abandon,  desert,  leave,  forsake,  resign,  surrender. 

2.  Dislike,  despise,  detest,  abhor,  scorn. 

3.  Abide,  live,  continue,  reside,  stay,  remain. 

4.  Abuse,  impose  upon,  persecute,  oppress. 

5.  Greet,  address,  salute,  hail,  speak  to. 

II. 

6.  Alert,  lively,  nimble,  prompt,  ready,  vigilant. 

7.  Allow,  permit,  let,  grant,  concede. 

8.  Amiable,  agreeable,  attractive,  charming,  pleasing,  lovable. 

9.  Anxiety,  concern,  disturbance,  dread,  fear,  foreboding, 
misgiving,  worry,  solicitude. 

10.  Army,  force,  host,  soldiers,  troops,  phalanx. 


m. 

11.  Ask,  beg,  crave,  entreat,  implore,  petition,  request,  sup- 
plicate. 

12.  Greedy,  miserly,  niggardly,  parsimonious,  sordid,  stingy, 
covetous. 

13.  Bank,  edge,  marge,  margin,  shore,  beach,  strand. 

14.  Bind,  fasten,  tie,  fetter,  shackle. 

15.  Brave,  bold,  courageous,  daring,  fearless,  heroic,  valiant. 


SYNONYMS. 


37 


IV. 

16.  Business,  commerce,  employment,  occupation,  profession, 
trade,  vocation,  work. 

17.  Carry,  bring,  bear,  transmit,  transport,  move,  remove. 

18.  Cleanse,  clean,  disinfect,  purify,  sweep,  wash,  scrub. 

19.  Condemn,  reprove,  blame,  censure,  denounce. 

20.  Consequence,  result,  outcome,  event,  upshot,  sequel. 

V. 

21.  Delicious,  delightful,  luscious,  savory,  exquisite. 

22.  Difficult,  toilsome,  severe,  laborious,  arduous,  trying. 

23.  Disparage,  underrate,  undervalue,  dishonor,  detract  from. 

24.  Drive,  push,  impel,  propel,  urge,  thrust,  ride. 

25.  Enthusiasm,  determination,  eagerness,  excitement,  extrava- 
gance, vehemence,  warmth,  zeal. 

VI. 

26.  Evident,  apparent,  obvious,  palpable,  plain,  visible,  unmis- 
takable. 

27.  Generous,  liberal,  noble,  bountiful,  munificent,  open-handed . 

28.  Grief,  sorrow,  trouble,  distress,  tribulation,  woe. 

29.  Home,  house,  residence,  fireside,  abode,  dwelling,  habi- 
tation. 

30.  Honest,  frank,  ingenuous,  candid,  genuine,  trustworthy, 
sincere,  straightforward. 


SECTION  31.1 

ANTONYMS. 

Words  of  opposite  meaning  are  called  antonyms.  Thus, 
weak  and  strong^  crafty  and  simple^  empty  and  full^  are 
antonyms. 


1 This  section  will  furnish  material  for  several  lessons. 


38 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


The  antonym  is  the  opposite  of  the  synonym.  In  com- 
paring one  object  or  person  with  another,  we  observe 
both  likeness  and  differences.  When  we  observe  simi- 
larity in  the  objects  compared,  the  synonym  comes  to 
our  aid,  preventing  tiresome  repetitions.  When  we 
contrast  objects  and  note  characteristics  in  which  they 
differ,  we  need  the  antonym  to  make  our  meaning  clear. 

In  the  following  exercises,  words  of  opposite  mean- 
ing are  grouped  together.  Use  the  words  in  sentences 
in  which  their  opposite  meaning  is  apparent. 

Example.  — John  is  an  avjkward  fellow.  His  sister,  on  the 
contrary,  is  very  graceful. 

While  the  miser  hoarded,  his  children  squandered. 


I. 


1. 

haughty 

humble 

6.  tyrannical 

submissive 

2. 

absent 

present 

7.  attentive 

inattentive 

3. 

wide-awake 

preoccupied 

8.  proud 

meek 

4. 

dilatory 

prompt 

9.  thoughtful 

thoughtless 

5. 

fearful 

fearless 

10.  identical 

different 

II. 

11. 

equal 

unequal 

16.  similar 

dissimilar 

12. 

strong 

weak 

17.  candid 

deceitful 

13. 

illiterate 

learned 

18..  wise 

ignorant 

14. 

refractory 

docile 

19.  polite 

rude 

15.  busy 

idle 

20.  happy 

unhappy 

III. 

21. 

wholesome 

unwholesome 

26.  true 

false 

22. 

firm 

wavering 

27.  talented 

witless 

23. 

bungling 

expert 

28.  quick 

slow 

24. 

inflexible 

pliable 

29.  urban 

rural 

25. 

cultivated 

uncouth 

30.  young 

old 

ANTONYMS. 


IV. 


31.  dishearten 

encourage 

36.  lower 

raise 

32.  incite 

dissuade 

37.  help 

hinder 

33.  destroy 

renew 

38.  pardon 

condemn 

34.  decorate 

deface 

39.  please 

displease 

35.  decrease 

increase 

40.  promote 

deter 

V. 


41.  assist 

impede 

46.  like 

dislike 

42.  covet 

shun 

47.  authorize 

prohibit 

43.  annul 

confirm 

48.  take  in 

give  out 

44.  add 

subtract 

49.  oppress 

protect 

45.  adorn 

disfigure 

50.  offend 

conciliate 

VI. 


51.  soothe 

excite 

56.  earn 

spend 

52.  grieve 

rejoice 

57.  starve 

satiate 

53.  bring 

carry 

58.  attack 

defend 

54.  gather 

scatter 

59.  hoard 

squander 

55.  go 

come 

60.  preserve 

destroy 

VII. 


61. 

love 

hate 

71.  serenity 

anxiety 

62. 

self-denial 

self-indulgence 

72.  courage 

fear 

63. 

chance 

necessity 

73.  energy 

inertia 

64. 

evil 

good 

74.  system 

confusion 

65. 

citizen 

alien 

75.  order 

chaos 

66. 

moderation 

excess 

76.  economy 

extravagance 

67. 

leader 

follower 

77.  health 

disease 

68. 

panic 

repose 

78.  punctuality  tardiness 

69. 

confederate  adversary 

79.  courtesy 

rudeness 

70. 

friend 

enemy 

80.  learning 

ignorance 

40 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  32. 

Find  both  synonyms  and  antonyms  for  the  italicized 
words  in  the  following  selection. 

THE  THREE  GOLDEN  APPLES. 

(From  Hawthorne’s  “ Wonder  Book.”) 

Nothing  was  before  him,  save  the  foaming,  dashing^  measureless 
ocean.  But,  suddenly,  as  he  looked  towards  the  horizon,  he  saw 
something,  a great  way  off,  which  he  had  not  seen  the  moment 
before.  It  gleamed  very  brightly,  almost  as  you  may  have  beheld 
the  round,  golden  disk  of  the  sun,  when  it  rises  or  sets  over  the 
edge  of  the  world.  It  evidently  drew  nearer ; for,  at  every  instant, 
this  wonderful  object  became  larger  and  more  lustrous.  At  length, 
it  had  come  so  nigh  that  Hercules  discovered  it  to  be  an  immense 
cup  or  bowl,  made  either  of  gold  or  burnished  brass.  How  it  had 
got  afloat  upon  the  sea  is  more  than  I can  tell  you.  There  it  was, 
at  all  events,  rolling  on  the  tumultuous  billows,  which  tossed  it  up 
and  down,  and  heaved  their  foamy  tops  against  its  sides,  but 
without  ever  throwing  their  spray  over  the  brim. 


SECTION  33. 

FOKMATION  OF  ANTONYMS. 

An  antonym  is  often  formed  by  prefixing  dis,  in,  or 
un  to  a word.  Thus,  — agree,  disagree;  discreet,  indis- 
creet; wise,  unwise. 

Bring  to  the  class  fifty  words  with  antonyms  formed 
as  indicated  above. 

Be  prepared  to  use  these  words  with  their  antonyms 
in  appropriate  sentences. 


ANTONYMS. 


41 


SECTION  34. 

Study  the  following  proverbs  to  discover  their  mean- 
ing. Observe  especially  the  words  and  phrases  by  means 
of  which  contrast  is  expressed. 

1.  The  way  of  the  fool  is  right  in  his  own  eyes,  but  he  that 
hearkeneth  unto  counsel  is  wise. 

2.  The  lip  of  truth  shall  be  established  forever,  but  a lying 
tongue  is  but  for  a moment. 

3.  Lying  lips  are  abomination  to  the  Lord,  but  they  that  deal 
truly  are  his  delight. 

4.  The  hand  of  the  diligent  shall  bear  rule,  but  the  slothful 
shall  be  under  tribute. 

5.  There  is  that  maketh  himself  rich,  yet  hath  nothing.  There 
is  that  maketh  himself  poor,  yet  hath  great  riches. 

6.  He  that  is  slow  to  wrath  is  of  great  understanding,  but  he 
that  is  hasty  of  spirit  exalteth  folly. 

7.  Better  is  a dinner  of  herbs  where  love  is  than  a stalled  ox 
and  hatred  therewith. 

8.  Better  is  a little  with  righteousness  than  great  revenues 
without  right. 

9.  Better  it  is  to  be  of  an  humble  spirit  with  the  lowly  than  to 
divide  the  spoil  with  the  proud. 

SECTION  35. 

Study  the  following  selection,  and  point  out  the 
means  by  which  contrasts  are  effectively  presented. 

Money  never  made  a man  happy  yet ; nor  will  it.  There  is 
nothing  in  its  nature  to  produce  happiness.  The  more  a man 
has,  the  more  he  wants.  Instead  of  its  filling  a vacuum,  it  makes 
one.  If  it  satisfies  one  want,  it  doubles  and  trebles  that  want 
another  way.  That  was  a true  proverb  of  the  wise  man,  rely  upon 
it : Better  is  little  with  the  fear  of  the  Lord  than  great  treasure 

and  trouble  therewith.”  — Franklin. 


42 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  36. 

Using  the  following  sentence  as  an  example,  construct 
ten  similar  sentences,  using  synonyms  and  antonyms  from 
the  lists  that  you  have  just  studied  (pp.  36-39). 

If  you  are  dull,  inert,  and  lazy,  you  will  accomplish  nothing ; 
but  if  you  are  alert,  diligent,  and  energetic,  your  success  is  assured. 

SECTION  37. 

Find  an  antonym  for  the  first  word  in  each  exercise 
in  Section  30,  so  far  as  that  is  possible. 

Use  each  pair  of  antonyms  in  a sentence. 

SECTION  38. 

THE  SENTENCE  AS  A UNIT. 

Composition,* as  we  have  seen,  is  a process  of  “put- 
ting together.”  In  expressing  our  thoughts  in  orderly 
discourse,  whether  oral  or  written,  we  put  together 
words  to  make  sentences,  and  sentences  to  make  larger 
divisions  of  story,  oration,  essay,  and  so  on.  The 
process  is  continuous  and  identical  in  its  nature,  from 
the  simplest  combination  of  subject  and  predicate,  like 
.“Birds  fly,”  to  a play  of  Shakspere,  a novel  of  Scott, 
or  the  most  elaborate  scientific  or  historical  treatise. 

In  forming  sentences  we  must  take  care  that  every 
sentence  is  a unit,  — that  is,  we  must  not  include  in  a 
single  sentence  different  ideas  that  have  no  obvious 
connection. 

The  Spartans  did  not  care  for  literature. 

The  Spartans  were  stubborn  fighters. 


UNITY. 


43 


Each  of  these  sentences  is  a unit.  The  two  state- 
ments may  be  combined  into  — 

The  Spartans  despised  literature,  but  they  excelled  in  warfare. 

This  sentence  is  also  a unit,  for  it  characterizes  the 
Spartans  by  telling  what  they  cared  for  and  what  they 
did  not  care  for.  Contrast  the  case  of  the  two  follow- 
ing sentences : — 

The  Spartans  did  not  care  for  literature. 

The  Spartans  lived  in  Laconia. 

It  would  not  be  easy  to  combine  these  two  statements 
into  a single  sentence  without  producing  a ridiculous 
effect.  The  residence  of  the  Spartans  in  Laconia  and 
their  distaste  for  literature  are  not  connected  ideas. 

The  principle  illustrated  in  what  precedes  is  called 
the  principle  of  unity.  It  runs  through  all  forms  of 
composition. 1 

To  THE  Teacher.  — A review  of  certain  principles  of  grammar  may- 
be necessary  at  this  point,  as  an  introduction  to  Section  39.  The  extent 
and  minuteness  of  this  review  will  of  course  depend  on  the  condition 
of  the  pupils’  grammatical  knowledge.  They  should  have  clearly  in  mind 
the  difference  between  compound  and  complex  sentences,  the  use  of  adjec- 
tive and  adverbial  phrases  and  clauses,  the  nature  and  constructions  of 
participles  and  infinitives,  and,  in  general,  the  analysis  of  the  sentence. 
References  to  “ The  Mother  Tongue,”  Book  II,  are  added  for  convenience : 
§§121-32,  189-211,  427-8,  492-5,  533^0,  572-617. 


SECTION  39. 

UNITY. 

Study  the  following  pairs  of  sentences  and  see  if  they 
can  be  combined  without  violating  the  principle  of  unity. 
1 For  a study  of  unity  in  the  larger  sense,  see  Part  III. 


44 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


1,  The  inhabitants  of  these  islands  are  very  barbarous. 

The  inhabitants  of  these  islands  live  principally  on  raw  fish. 

» 2.  Napoleon  was  a great  conqueror. 

Napoleon  wore  a long  riding  coat  at  the  Battle  of  Leipzig. 

3.  Thus  Wallace’s  party  grew  stronger  and  stronger. 

Many  of  the  Scottish  nobles  joined  Wallace. 

c 4.  John  Oxenford  lived  in  Clifton  Terrace. 

His  favorite  author  was  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

5.  The  natives  of  the  Andaman  Islands  were  said  to  be 
ignorant  of  the  use  of  fire. 

These  natives  were  firm  believers  in  witchcraft. 

6.  Five  or  six  men  were  seated  on  logs  and  stools  round  the 
great  chimney. 

The  herdsmen  were  eating  their  supper  of  bread  and  cheese. 

‘7.  King  Charles  I was  beheaded. 

The  news  of  the  king’s  death  was  everywhere  received 
with  a thrill  of  horror. 

8.  At  last  they  found  means  to  carry  their  meal  to  a mill 
near  Woodford. 

They  had  their  meal  ground  at  this  mill. 

9.  The  scantiness  of  his  purse  was  notorious. 

Goldsmith  was  forced  to  live  in  obscure  lodgings. 

10.  Columbus  landed  in  1492. 

Sebastian  Cabot  sailed  from  Bristol  in  1497  and  pushed 
along  the  coast  of  America  to  the  south  as  far  as  Florida. 

,11.  My  copy  of  Shakspere  is  in  ten  volumes. 

The  plays  of  Shakspere  were  very  popular  in  his  own  time . 

See  into  how  many  short  sentences  the  following 
passage  may  be  cut  up. 

The  dream  of  finding  a passage  to  Asia  by  a voyage  round 
the  northern  coast  of  the  American  continent  drew  a west-country 
seaman,  Martin  Frobisher,  to  the  coast  of  Labrador,  and  the  news 
which  he  brought  back  of  the  existence  of  gold  mines  there  set 
adventurers  cruising  among  the  icebergs  of  Bafiin’s  Bay, 


VARIETY  AND  SMOOTHNESS. 


45 


SECTION  40. 

YAEIETY  AND  SMOOTHNESS. 

Read  the  following  description  aloud : — 

EVENING  AT  THE  DOCTOR’S. 

The  clock  of  St.  George’s  had  struck  five.  Mrs.  Dove  had 
just  poured  out  the  Doctor’s  seventh  cup  of  tea.  The  Doctor  was 
sitting  in  his  armchair.  Sir  Thomas  was  purring  upon  the 
Doctor’s  knees.  Pompey  stood  looking  up  to  Mrs.  Dove.  He 
wagged  his  tail.  Sometimes  he  whined  with  a short  note  of 
impatience.  Sometimes  he  gently  put  his  paw  against  Mrs.  Dove’s 
apron.  This  was  to  remind  her  that  he  wished  for  another  bit  of 
bread  and  butter.  Barnaby  was  gone  to  the  farm.  Nobs  was  in 
the  stable. 

You  observe  that  this  passage  is  grammatical  and 
written  in  good  pure  English.  It  is  so  vivid  that, 
although  you  may  know  nothing  of  the  story,  you  can- 
not fail  to  understand  the  situation.  You  can  have  no 
doubt  that  the  Doctor  lived  near  St.  George’s  Church 
and  that  his  name  was  Dove.  It  is  equally  clear  that 
Sir  Thomas  was  the  Doctor’s  cat,  Pompey  his  dog, 
Barnaby  his  servant,  and  Nobs  his  horse. 

Yet  the  passage  is  not  quite  agreeable  to  read.  It  is 
chopped  up  into  a number  of  short  sentences  of  about 
the  same  length,  and  no  attempt  is  made  to  enable  you 
to  pass  easily  from  one  to  another.  To  read  a whole 
book  written  in  this  style,  or  even  a dozen  pages,  would 
be  pretty  hard  work. 

Now  read  the  same  passage  in  the  form  in  which  it 
was  actually  composed  by  the  author,  Robert  Southey. 


46 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


The  clock  of  St.  George’s  had  struck  five.  Mrs.  Dove  had 
just  poured  out  the  Doctor’s  seventh  cup  of  tea.  The  Doctor  was 
sitting  in  his  armchair.  Sir  Thomas  was  purring  upon  his  knees ; 
and  Pompey  stood  looking  up  to  his  mistress,  wagging  his  tail, 
sometimes  whining  with  a short  note  of  impatience,  and  some- 
times gently  putting  his  paw  against  her  apron  to  remind  her  that 
he  wished  for  another  bit  of  bread  and  butter.  Barnaby  was 
gone  to  the  farm ; and  Nobs  was  in  the  stable. 

This  is  something  very  different.  Though  the  words 
have  hardly  been  changed  at  all,  the  passage  produces 
an  entirely  different  effect.  Comparing  the  two,  we 
find  that  in  the  first  the  sentences  are  all  short  and  dis- 
connected ; whereas  in  the  second  there  is  considerable 
variety  in  their  length  and  structure.  This  variety  is 
not  merely  agreeable:  it  enables  us  to  understand  the 
relations  between  the  different  facts. 

In  the  first  passage,  for  example,  the  statement  that  Pompey 
wagged  his  tail  is  quite  as  important,  apparently,  as  the  statement 
that  the  Doctor  was  sitting  in  his  armchair.  Hence  one  can 
hardly  tell  whether  the  Doctor  or  Mrs.  Dove  or  Pompey  is  the 
chief  personage  in  the  story.  In  the  second  passage,  however, 
everything  is  clear.  The  central  figure  is  manifestly  the  Doctor, 
and  the  purpose  of  the  whole  is  to  describe  his  household. 

Such  a comparison  brings  out  the  importance  of 
variety  in  sentence  structure.  We  shall  return  to  this  sub- 
ject at  a later  stage  of  our  studies  in  composition. 
Meantime,  we  cannot  help  observing  its  importance  in 
everything  we  read. 

In  Mr.  Riis’s  story,  for  example,  see  how  the  first 
long  sentence  (p.  10)  gives,  at  one  stroke,  the  whole 
background  of  the  incident  that  he  is  going  to  tell. 


VARIETY  m SENTENCES. 


47 


SECTION  41. 

VARIETY  IN  SENTENCES. 

Sameness  (or  monotony)  of  style  is  a fatal  fault  in 
composition,  for  it  takes  the  life  out  of  the  most  inter- 
esting subject.  Variety,  on  the  other  hand,  stimulates 
attention  and  lends  a certain  attractiveness  to  the  driest 
material. 

The  free  syntax  of  our  language,  together  with  its 
large  and  diversified  stock  of  words,  makes  variety  an 
easy  merit  in  English  writing.  The  same  idea  may 
often  be  expressed  in  several  different  ways  by  chang- 
ing the  grammatical  construction.  You  have  already 
studied  many  such  “ equivalent  constructions  ” in  your 
lessons  in  grammar. 

Examples  are : adjectives,  adjective  phrases,  and  adjective 
clauses  (§§  T21-3,  204-7)  ; adverbs,  adverbial  phrases,  and 
adverbial  clauses  (§§  124-31,  195-200)  ; nouns  and  noun  clauses 
(§§  208-11)  ; active  and  passive  (§§  464-6)  ; nouns  and  infini- 
tives (§§  448,  533-6)  ; infinitives  and  clauses  of  purpose  and 
result  (§§  585-9) ; infinitive  clauses  (§§  611-17) ; clauses  of 
cause,  time,  place,  and  circumstance,  and  the  nominative  absolute 
(§§  492-5).i 

Observe  that  two  equivalent  constructions  ” often 
differ  in  the  exact  shade  of  thought  or  feeling  that  they 
express,  or,  at  all  events,  in  emphasis.  Compare  what 
was  said  of  synonyms  in  Section  28. 

1 This  enumeration  will  serve  as  a basis  for  several  review  lessons  at 
this  point  if  the  pupil’s  memory  needs  refreshing.  The  references  are  to 
“ The  Mother  Tongue,”  Book  II,  where  the  exercises  attached  to  the  sev- 
eral chapters  afford  abundant  material  for  practice  in  connection  with  such 


reviews. 


48 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  42.  ' 

Write  ten  sentences  containing  a nominative  absolute 
(with  a participle).  Substitute  a clause  for  the  nomina- 
tive absolute  whenever  this  is  possible. 

In  each  of  your  sentences,  substitute  a prepositional 
phrase,  if  it  can  be  done  without  spoiling  the  style. 

SECTION  43. 

See  in  how  many  ways  you  can  change  Franklin’s 
sentences  on  page  9 without  materially  affecting  the 
sense. 

SECTION  44. 

Study  the  following  sentence  from  Lamb  : — 

Taking  the  dagger  in  his  hand,  Macbeth  softly  stole  in  the 
dark  to  the  chamber  where  Duncan  lay. 

You  observe  that  the  constructions  may  be  varied  in 
a number  of  ways.  Thus,  — 

1.  Instead  of  the  present  participle  taking^  we 
might  use  the  perfect  participle  (having  taken)^  or  a 
clause  of  time  (when  he  had  taken)  ^ or  a prepositional 
phrase  (after  taking)^  or  a nominative  absolute  (dagger 
in  hand), 

2.  Instead  of  the  adjective  clause  where  Duncan  lay, 
we  might  use  a genitive  {Duncan^ s chamber)^  or  an  of- 
phrase  {the  chamber  of  Duncan),,  or  an  adjective  (the 
royal  chamber). 

Make  the  sentence  over,  in  different  ways,  on  the 
basis  of  these  suggestions,  and  tell  whether  you  think 
it  is  improved  by  the  several  changes. 


VARIETY  IN  SENTENCES. 


49 


SECTION  45. 

Study  the  following  sentences  in  accordance  with 
the  plan  described  in  Section  44. 

. 1.  Being  weary  they  fell  asleep. 

2.  Taking  an  affectionate  leave  of  my  kind  and  interesting 
young  hosts,  I went  my  way. 

3.  Seeing  a crowd  of  people  in  the  street,  I joined  with  them 
to  satisfy  my  curiosity,  and  found  them  all  staring  up  into  the 
air. 

4.  We  set  out  in  the  evening  by  moonlight,  and  travelled 
hard,  the  road  being  very  plain  and  large,  till  we  came  to 
Grantham . 

- 5.  There  lay  before  me,  extending  completely  across  my  path, 
a thicket. 

6.  He  often  laid  his  ear  within  two  yards  of  me ; but  all  in 
vain,  for  we  were  wholly  unintelligible  to  each  other. 

7.  One  begins  to  see  in  this  country  the  first  promises  of  an 
Italian  spring,  clear  unclouded  skies  and  warm  suns,  such  as  are 
not  often  felt  in  England. 

8.  Everard  recollected  the  fiery,  high,  and  unbending  character 
of  Sir  Henry  Lee,  and  felt,  even  when  his  fingers  were  on  the 
latch,  a reluctance  to  intrude  himself  upon  the  presence  of  the 
irritable  old  knight. 

^ 9.  Foiled  in  an  attempt  on  North  Carolina  by  the  refusal  of 
his  fellow-general.  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  to  assist  him.  Lord  Corn- 
wallis fell  back  in  1781  on  Virginia,  and  intrenched  himself  in 
the  lines  of  Yorktown. 

10.  Wild  and  savage  insurrection  quitted  the  woods,  and 
prowled  about  our  streets  in  the  name  of  reform. 

11.  The  swallow,  oft,  beneath  my  thatch 

Shall  twitter  from  her  clay-built  nest ; 

Oft  shall  the  pilgrim  lift  the  latch. 

And  share  my  meal,  a welcome  guest. 


50 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  46. 

In  each  of  the  following  sentences,  substitute  a parti- 
cipial or  a prepositional  phrase  for  the  clause  indicating 
time. 

vl.  When  I had  watered  my  horse,  I turned  him  loose  to  graze. 

2.  I must  now  relate  what  occurred  to  me  a few  days  before 
the  ship  sailed. 

3.  It  must  have  been  raining  cats  and  dogs  ever  since  I had 
been  out. 

4.  After  the  proclamation  had  been  read,  the  crowd  dispersed, 
little  by  little. 

*5.  As  he  approached  they  raised  a rueful  cry. 

6.  I shall  be  in  town  when  November  comes  in. 

Have  you  improved  or  injured  the  passages,  or  have 
your  changes  made  them  neither  better  nor  worse  ? 

SECTION  47. 

An  infinitive  construction  may  often  be  substituted 
for  a clause,  or  a clause  for  an  infinitive  construction. 
Thus,  — 

1.  He  was  so  frightened  that  he  could  not  speak. 

He  was  too  frightened  to  speak. 

2.  The  board  was  adjusted  so  that  it  covered  the  trapdoor. 

The  board  was  so  adjusted  as  to  cover  the  trapdoor. 

3.  My  purpose  was  that  the  wall  should  be  undermined. 

My  purpose  was  to  undermine  the  wall. 

4.  He  toiled  that  he  might  procure  bread  for  his  children. 

He  toiled  to  procure  bread  for  his  children. 

Make  similar  substitutions  in  the  following  sentences. 


VARIETY  IN  SENTENCES. 


51 


5.  Mr.  Williams  seems  to  have  lost  the  power  of  acting  intelli- 
gently. [It  seems  that,  etc.] 

6.  The  rising  waters  seemed  to  cut  off  their  retreat  and  their 
advance. 

7.  I saw  him  change  color  and  bite  his  lip. 

8.  Even  Cromwell  was  powerless  to  break  the  spirit  which 
now  pervaded  the  soldiers. 

9.  The  emperor  held  frequent  council  to  debate  what  course 
should  be  taken  with  me. 

10.  Five  hundred  men  were  set  at  work  that  the  great  building 
might  be  ready. 

• 11.  The  queen’s  earnest  wish  is  for  you  to  act  the  part  of  a 
mediator. 

12.  I am  sorry  that  I must  leave  you  in  this  difficulty. 

• 13.  The  traveller  was  so  exhausted  that  he  could  not  speak. 

14.  The  river  was  so  high  that  it  flooded  the  city. 

15.  The  colonel  ordered  that  the  forces  should  set  out  at 
daybreak. 

16.  The  crew  sacrificed  themselves  that  the  passengers  might 
be  saved. 


SECTION  48. 

CONDENSED  EXPRESSIONS. 

It  is  often  possible  to  condense  a clause  or  a long 
phrase  into  a word  or  two.  Thus,  — 

1.  I have  no  doubt  that  the  confusion  was  great. 

No  doubt  the  confusion  was  great. 

2.  While  this  was  happening,  the  cavalry  had  come  up. 
Meanwhile  the  cavalry  had  come  up. 

3.  They  started  without  a momenfs  delay  (or,  instantly), 

4.  It  is  certain  tho,t  the  report  is  false. 

The  report  is  certainly  false. 

5.  He  was  agitated  and  paced  the  floor. 

He  paced  the  floor  in  agitation. 


52 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


I. 

Substitute  condensed  expressions  for  the  italicized  por- 
tions of  the  following  sentences. 

6.  She  wondered  how  it  was  that  they  could  both  be  alive. 

7.  Almost  everybody  knows  some  one  thing,  and  is  glad  to 
talk  about  that  one  thing, 

' 8.  He  uttered  his  words  carefully  and  with  deliberation, 

9.  I always  read  a poem  in  the  morning,  before  I sit  down  to 
breakfast. 

10.  The  Declaration  of  Independence  was  signed  on  the  fourth 
day  of  the  month  of  July,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  1776. 

11.  He  lay  awake  through  the  long  hours  of  the  night. 

12.  A farmer  lohose  name  was  Binnock  was  the  first  to  enlist. 

13.  The  president  of  the  company  was  a man  by  the  name  of 
Johnson. 

14.  He  rose,  and,  when  he  had  mounted  his  horse,  rode  off  at 
a gallop. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  condensed  phrases 
are  ‘‘better  English”  than  the  longer  expressions. 
Both  have  their  place  in  composition.  The  nature  of 
our  subject  and  the  effect  that  we  wish  to  produce 
must  determine  our  choice  of  words. 


II. 

Expand  the  italicized  expressions  in  an  appropriate 
way. 

1.  Amazed,  he  stares  around. 

2.  All  the  night  it  was  stormy  and  dark. 

3.  She  held  out  her  hands  in  icelcome. 

4.  Meanwhile  the  rain  had  begun  with  fury. 

5.  The  woods  were  soon  burning. 

6.  The  sailor  swam  vigorously. 

7.  This  done,  they  embarked  for  Calais. 


VARIETY. 


53 


SECTION  49. 

1.  Turn  to  Franklin’s  ‘‘First  Day  in  Philadelphia”  (p.  8). 
State  in  simple  sentences  all  that  the  author  has  told  in  the  first 
paragraph.  See  how  many  such  sentences  can  be  made  from  the 
paragraph. 

2.  Combine  in  any  way  that  pleases  you  the  sentences  that  you 
have  made  in  Exercise  1,  attempting  at  the  same  time  to  tell 
Franklin’s  story.  Point  out  the  advantages  of  this  construction 
over  that  in  Exercise  1. 

3.  Study  the  second  paragraph  of  the  “ Battle  of  Bannockburn  ” 
(pp.  11-12).  Treat  the  paragraph  as  in  Exercises  1 and  2. 

4.  Study  the  first  two  paragraphs  of  the  anecdote  in  Sec- 
tion 13.  Rewrite  the  paragraplis,  using  simple  sentences.  Then 
note  what  is  lost  in  the  rearrangement. 

5.  Select  an  interesting  item  of  perhaps  ten  lines  from  a news- 
paper or  magazine.  Enumerate  in  simple  sentences  the  facts 
which  are  stated  or  suggested  in  the  paragraph.  Read  your  list 
to  the  class,  asking  the  other  pupils  to  write  the  paragraph  from 
your  enumeration.  Compare  the  paragraphs  which  they  write, 
and  see  how  many  of  these  have  really  expressed  the  fact  stated 
in  the  original. 

SECTION  50. 

Unite  in  a single  sentence  all  the  items  in  each  of  the 
first  five  exercises  below. 

1.  The  Provincial  Congress  was. at  Concord.  The  Continental 
Congress  was  at  Philadelphia.  The  Provincial  Congress  sent  a 
message  to  the  Continental  Congress.  It  asked  the  Continental 
Congress  to  make  the  army  a continental  army.  It  asked  the 
Continental  Congress  to  appoint  a commander-in-chief. 

2.  A brave  people  lived  a long  time  ago.  These  people  were 
called  Romans.  They  were  warlike.  They  lived  more  than 
eighteen  hundred  years  ago.  They  undertook  to  conquer  the 
whole  world.  They  undertook  to  subdue  all  countries.  Their 


54 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


purpose  was  to  make  their  own  city  of  Rome  the  head  of  all 
nations.  They  wished  to  conquer  all  nations  upon  the  face  of 
the  earth. 

3.  A song  was  sung  by  the  choir.  It  was  sung  for  the  occa- 
sion. It  was  sung  with  perfect  harmony.  It  was  sung  wdth 
unity.  It  was  so  sung  that  it  seemed  like  some  glorious  instru- 
ment touched  by  a single  hand. 

' 4.  The  greater  part  of  Frankfort  is  built  in  the  old  German 
style.  Some  houses  are  six  stories  high.  Some  houses  are  seven 
stories  high.  Every  story  projects  over  that  below  it.  Those  who 
live  in  the  attics  can  nearly  shake  hands  out  of  the  window^s. 

5.  Investigation  of  the  earth’s  crust  teaches  us.  It  shows  us 
that  a chain  stretches  down  from  the  first  plants  to  those  of 
to-day.  It  shows  us  that  a chain  stretches  down  from  the  first 
animals  to  those  of  to-day.  This  chain  is  mighty.  Its  links  are 
living.  It  shows  the  order  in  which  the  plants  succeeded  each 
other.  It  shows  the  order  in  which  the  animals  succeeded  each 
other. 

6.  Select  well-written  complex  sentences  from  your  reading. 
Separate  them  into  parts,  as  in  the  previous  exercise.  Bring 
your  sentences  to  the  class  and  ask  the  other  pupils  to  reconstruct 
the  sentences  from  the  fragments  given. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — The  exercises  in  Sections  49  and  50  ought  to  show 
that  it  is  the  thought  which  determines  the  order  of  the  sentence.  Whether 
the  fragments  shall  appear  in  one  way  or  another  depends  upon  the  rela- 
tion which  they  assume  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker.  If  the  thoughts  are 
isolated  and  fragmentary,  the  sentences  will  he  brief,  jerky,  and  monoto- 
nous. If  the  thoughts  are  clear  and  well-governed,  the  writer  will  use 
clear  and  well-arranged  sentences. 

SECTION  51. 

In  the  following  exercise  you  will  find  fragments  of 
sentences  — words,  phrases,  and  clauses.  Put  them 
together  in  any  way  that  you  like,  or  in  as  many 
ways  as  you  choose. 


VARIETY. 


55 


In  the  class,  compare  your  sentences  with  those  made 
by  the  other  pupils  out  of  the  same  material,  and  observe 
the  variety  of  thought  and  expression. 

1 . Four  large  frogs  were  sunning  themselves.  They  were  in 
front  of  me.  They  were  near  the  shore.  They  were  in  the 
shallow  water.  They  were  among  the  lily  pads. 

2.  Perseus  looked  up  to  the  heaven  above  his  head.  It  was 
still.  He  looked  down.  The  sand  was  still  beneath  his  feet. 
Above,  there  was  nothing  but  the  blinding  sun.  The  blinding 
sun  was  in  the  blinding  blue.  Around  him  there  was  nothing 
but  the  sand.  The  sand  was  blinding. 

3.  I had  sown  sweet  peas.  I had  two  great  patches  of  sweet 
peas.  They  made  me  haj^py  all  summer.  I had  sunflowers.  I 
had  hollyhocks,  also.  The  sunflowers  and  hollyhocks  were  under 
the  study  windows.  Madonna  lilies  grew  between  the  holly- 
hocks and  sunflowers.  The  colors  of  the  hollyhocks  turned  out 
to  be  ugly.  My  first  summer  was  decorated  and  beautified  solely 
by  sweet  peas. 

4.  The  coachman  is  seventy  years  old.  His  name  is  Peter. 
He  was  born  on  the  place.  He  has  driven  its  occupants  for  fifty 
years.  AVe  are  very  fond  of  him. 

5.  Centuries  ago  in  a valley  a little  fern  leaf  grew  the 
fern  was  green  and  slender  its  veins  were  delicate  it  waved  in 
the  wind  and  bent  low  tall  rushes  grew  around  it  moss  and 
grass  grew  around  it  sunbeams  came  fanned  the  dew 
fell  on  it  by  night  no  man  ever  saw  it  no  foot  of  man  ever 
came  that  way  then  earth  was  young  then  earth  was  keeping 
holiday. 

SECTION  52. 

Study  the  following  sentences.  Note  the  thought 
which  is  expressed  in  each.  Expand  each  sentence  in 
various  ways  and  note  how  the  sentence  changes  as  the 
thought  is  modified. 


56 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


To  THE  Teacher.  — These  exercises  should  be  written  by  every  pupil. 
The  results  should  be  compared  in  the  class,  so  that  all  may  note  the 
variety  of  the  results  obtained. 

Example.  — The  boy  studies. 

The  earnest  boy  studies  faithfully. 

The  boy  studies  when  he  must. 

That  careless  boy  studies  only  when  he  cannot  avoid  it. 

The  boy  who  sits  in  the  corner  studies  as  if  it  were  a pleasure. 


1.  The  ship  was  finished. 

2.  They  felled  the  pines. 

3.  The  heroes  listened. 

4.  The  harper  played. 

5.  My  father  came. 

6.  The  fates  decree. 

7.  The  craven  faltered. 

8.  Edison  invented. 

9.  The  poet  wrote. 

10.  The  torrent  roared. 


11.  Jason  went  away. 

12.  The  old  man  looked. 

13.  They  rowed  away. 

14.  The  herald  went. 

15.  The  shepherds  stood. 

16.  The  servant  ran. 

17.  The  prince  sent. 

18.  Cornwallis  surrendered, 

19.  The  helmsman  steered. 

20.  The  Indians  halted. 


SECTION  53. 

In  the  following  passage  observe  how  one  long  sen- 
tence is  built  up  on  the  basis  of  a simple  statement  by 
means  of  modifiers. 

See  how  many  simple  sentences  you  can  make  out  of 
the  passage. 

The  Saracen  came  on  at  the  speedy  gallop  of  an  Arab  horse- 
man, managing  his  steed  more  by  his  limbs  and  the  inflection 
of  his  body  than  by  any  use  of  the  reins,  which  hung  loose  in 
his  left  hand;  so  that  he  was  enabled  to  wield  the  light,  round 
buckler  of  the  skin  of  the  rhinoceros,  ornamented  with  silver 
loops,  which  he  wore  on  his  arm,  swinging  it  as  if  he  meant  to 
oppose  its  slender  circle  to  the  formidable  thrust  of  the  Western 
lance.  — Scott. 


VARIETY  AND  EMPHASIS. 


67 


SECTION  54. 

VARIETY  AND  EMPHASIS. 

There  is  another  use  for  yariety  in  sentences.  In 
speaking,  we  use  emphasis  to  assist  the  hearer  in  under- 
standing exactly  what  we  mean.  In  writing,  it  is  not 
always  easy  to  indicate  such  emphasis.  Yet,  unless  the 
reader  knows  which  words  or  phrases  are  meant  to  be 
emphatic,  he  may  lose  the  effect  of  a whole  sentence. 
In  verse  the  metre  is  of  assistance.  In  prose  we  must 
trust  much  to  the  reader’s  intelligence,  but  some  help 
is  afforded  by  the  order  of  words. 

Study  the  following  passages  and  indicate  such  words, 
or  groups  of  words,  as  seem  to  you  emphatic. 

Test  your  opinion  by  reading  each  sentence  aloud. 

Do  you  see  anything  peculiar  about  the  position  of 
these  words? 

Change  the  order  and  note  the  effect. 

1 . These,  therefore,  I can  pity. 

2.  In  the  night  it  blew  very  hard,  and  a great  sea  tumbled  in 
upon  the  shore ; but,  being  extremely  fatigued,  we  in  the  boats 
went  to  sleep. 

3.  Even  in  sleep,  however,  my  fancy  was  still  busy;  and  a 
dream,  so  vivid  as  to  leave  behind  it  the  impression  of  reality, 
thus  passed  through  my  mind. 

4.  Think,  when  we  talk  of  horses,  that  you  see  them 
Printing  their  proud  hoofs  i’  the  receiving  earth. 

5.  Never  was  such  a sudden  scholar  made. 

6.  A black  day  will  it  be  to  somebody. 

7.  Some  war,  some  plague,  some  famine  they  foresee. 

8.  The  fur  that  warms  a monarch,  warmed  a bear. 

9.  What  a delicious  veranda  is  this  to  dream  in ! 


58 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


10.  By  good  luck  I got  an  excellent  place  in  the  best  part  of 
the  house. 

11.  There  fell  a thick  and  heavy  rain,  and  the  ground  on 
which  the  beleaguering  army  must  needs  take  up  their  position 
was  muddy  and  intersected  with  many  canals. 

12.  Tier  beyond  tier,  height  above  height,  the  great  wooded 
ranges  go  rolling  away  westward,  till  on  the  lofty  sky-line  they 
are  crowned  with  a gleam  of  everlasting  snow. 

13.  With  blackest  moss  the  flower-pots 
Were  thickly  crusted,  one  and  all. 

14.  Far  as  the  eye  can  reach  up  the  glen,  and  to  the  right,  it 
is  one  horrid  w^aste  of  gray  granite ; here  and  there  a streak  of 
yellow  grass  or  a patch  of  black  bog ; not  a tree  or  a shrub  within 
the  sky-line. 


SECTION  55. 

METHODS  OF  EMPHASIS. 

Your  study  of  the  sentences  in  Section  54  has  shown 
you  that  every  variation  from  the  simplest  order  of 
words  makes  a difference  in  emphasis. 

Thus,  in  the  first  example,  the  object  is  put  before  the  subject 
and  the  verb ; in  the  fifth,  an  adverb  comes  first,  and  the  subject 
follows  icas ; in  the  tenth,  the  adverbial  modifier  hy  good  luck 
begins  the  sentence. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — Such  variations  cannot  be  reduced  to  hard-and- 
fast  rules.  The  student  should  “read  authors”  and  observe  how  they 
arrange  their  w'ords  and  clauses.  He  may  then  try  to  reproduce  the 
simpler  effects  in  his  own  writing.  The  hints  that  follow  will  be  of  some 
assistance.  From  the  outset,  however,  he  should  be  warned  against 
violent  or  affected  distortions. 

A word,  phrase,  or  clause  is  often  emphasized  by 
coming  before  the  subject  of  the  sentence. 


METHODS  OF  EMPHASIS. 


59 


The  simple  subject  and  the  predicate  verb  may  both 
become  emphatic  when  they  change  places  in  the  sen- 
tence or  clause.  This  is  called  the  inverted  order.” 

The  object  may  be  emphasized  by  making  it  precede 
the  verb. 

The  end  of  a clause  or  sentence  is  often  an  emphatic 
position. 

Study  the  following  sentences  and  notice  the  position 
of  the  emphatic  words. 

1.  Be  secret  and  be  safe. 

2.  Then  would  come  a fit  of  despondency,  almost  of  despair. 

3.  Here  giant  weeds  a passage  scarce  allow 
To  halls  deserted,  portals  gaping  wide. 

4.  It ’s  hard  to  part  with  the  old  farm  and  the  old  faces  now. 

5.  Few  parliaments  have  ever  been  more  memorable,  or  more 
truly  representative  of  the  English  people,  than  the  parliament  of 
1654. 

6.  False  face  must  hide  what  the  false  heart  doth  know. 

7.  His  eyes  grew  brighter,  his  bearing  more  majestic,  his 
heart  softer  towards  his  fellow-creatures. 

8.  This  house  is  mine.  Go  ! I will  never  forget  and  never 
forgive.  Go  ! 

9.  A vast  confusion  of  formless  rocks  crosses  the  stream, 
torturing  it  into  a hundred  boiling  pools  and  hissing  cascades. 

10.  Young  men  are  fitter  to  invent  than  to  judge. 

11.  We  are  no  tyrant,  but  a Christian  king. 

12.  A wise  man  changes  his  mind,  a fool  never  will. 

13.  Next  to  being  too  late,  being  too  soon  is  the  worst  plan  in 
the  world. 

14.  I heard  the  owl  scream  and  the  crickets  cry. 

15.  His  features  are  strong  and  masculine,  with  an  Austrian 
lip  and  arched  nose ; his  complexion  olive,  his  bearing  erect,  his 
body  and  limbs  well  proportioned,  all  his  motions  graceful,  and 
his  deportment  majestic. 


60 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  56. 

1.  Pick  out  of  Franklin’s  ‘‘First  Day  in  Philadelphia” 
(pp.  8-9)  five  examples  of  emphasis  obtained  by  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  sentences. 

2.  Study  the  whole  of  “The  Story  of  a Fire”  (p.  10),  with 
especial  attention  to  the  means  by  which  variety  and  emphasis 
are  secured. 

' 3.  Study  Tennyson’s  “ Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade.”  Pick 
out  the  sentences  in  which  emphasis  has  been  secured  by  unusual 
arrangement  of  the  parts  of  the  sentence. 

4.  Write  ten  simple  sentences  each  of  wLich  states  some 
familiar  fact  or  relates  some  incident  which  has  happened  in  the 
schoolroom.  See  in  how  many  ways  you  can  rewrite  each  sen- 
tence so  as  to  bring  the  emphasis  upon  different  phases  of  the 
thought. 

5.  Rewrite  five  sentences  in  Section  54,  and  observe  the 
changes  in  emphasis  that  result. 

6.  Study  the  following  stanzas  from  Campbell’s  “ Hohenlin- 
den.”  Observe  the  emphasis  secured  by  varying  the  order  of 
the  sentence. 

By  torch  and  trumpet  fast  arrayed. 

Each  horseman  drew  his  battle-blade. 

And  furious  every  charger  neighed. 

To  join  the  dreadful  revelry. 

Then  shook  the  hills  with  thunder  riven. 

Then  rushed  the  steed  to  battle  driven. 

And  louder  than  the  bolts  of  heaven 
Far  flashed  the  red  artillery. 

And  redder  yet  that  light  shall  glow 
On  Linden’s  hills  of  stained  snow  ; 

And  bloodier  yet  the  torrent  flow 
Of  Iser,  rolling  rapidly. 


EFFECTIVENESS  OF  SENTENCES. 


61 


SECTION  57. 

We  have  already  studied  variety  in  sentences  and  have 
seen  that  different  forms  (simple  or  complex)  produce 
very  different  effects. 

We  may  observe  similar  differences  in  the  compara- 
tive effectiveness  of  declarative,  interrogative,  imperative, 
and  exclamatory  sentences. 

Change  the  following  sentences  in  form,  and  see 
whether  each  gains  or  loses  in  effectiveness. 

1.  What  a frightful  road  this  is  for  me  to  travel ! 

2.  How  quick  the  change  from  joy  to  woe  ! 

How  checker’d  is  our  lot  below ! 

3.  Will  you  be  patient?  Will  you  stay  awhile? 

4.  What  a dignity  there  is  in  the  Roman  language! 

5.  Will  you  forgive  me  if  I have  pained  you? 

6.  Where  is  the  packet?  Why  should  you  lose  a moment? 

7.  Was  there  ever  anything  so  delightful? 

8.  And  yet  what  harmony  was  in  him!  what  music  even  in 
his  discords ! 

9.  How  bright  and  happy  this  world  ought  to  be  ! 

10.  When  others  praise  him,  do  I blame? 

11.  The  songs  of  spring  have  departed. 

12.  Luckless  man  that  I am  ! ” said  the  notary. 

13.  Ah  ! well-a-day  ! what  evil  looks 
Had  I from  old  and  young ! 

14.  Wherever  I turn,  what  a labyrinth  of  doubt,  error,  and 
disappointment  appears ! 

15.  How  would  a Chinese,  bred  up  in  the  formalities  of  an 
Eastern  court,  be  regarded,  should  he  carry  all  his  good  manners 
beyond  the  Great  Wall?  How  would  an  Englishman,  skilled  in 
all  the  decorums  of  Western  good  breeding,  appear  at  an  Eastern 
entertainment?  Would  he  not  be  reckoned  more  fantastically 
savage  than  even  his  underbred  footman? 


62 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  58. 

PARAGRAPHS. 

Arrangement  of  material  is,  as  we  have  seen  (p.  25),  a 
matter  of  great  importance  in  even  the  simplest  story. 
Unless  the  story  is  very  short  (not  more  than  a few  lines 
in , length),  the  natural  way  to  indicate  this  arrange- 
ment, in  its  larger  divisions,  is  by  paragraphing. 

1 Read  the  following  passage  and  observe  that  it  is  not 
printed  in  one  mass,  but  is  divided  into  paragraphs. 

THE  BIRD. 

The  bird  is  little  more  than  a drift  of  the  air  brought  into 
form  by  plumes ; the  air  is  in  all  its  quills,  it  breathes  through 
its  whole  frame  and  flesh,  and  glows  with  air  in  its  flying,  like 
blown  flame:  it  rests  upon  the  air,  subdues  it,  surpasses  it,  out- 
races  it ; — is  the  air,  conscious  of  itself,  conquering  itself,  ruling 
itself. 

Also,  into  the  throat  of  the  bird  is  given  the  voice  of  the  air. 
All  that  in  the  wind  itself  is  weak,  wild,  useless  in  sweetness,  is 
knit  together  in  its  song.  As  we  may  imagine  the  wild  form  of 
the  cloud  closed  into  the  perfect  form  of  the  bird’s  wings,  so  the 
wild  voice  of  the  cloud  into  its  ordered  and  commanded  voice; 
unwearied,  rippling  through  the  clear  heaven  in  its  gladness, 
interpreting  all  intense  passion  through  the  soft  spring  nights, 
bursting  into  acclaim  and  rapture  of  choir  at  daybreak,  or  lisping 
and  twittering  among  the  boughs  and  hedges  through  heat  of 
day,  like  little  winds  that  only  make  the  cowslip  bells  shake,  and 
ruffle  the  petals  of  the  wild  rose. 

Also,  upon  the  plumes  of  the  bird  are  put  the  colors  of  the  air : 
on  these  the  gold  of  the  cloud,  that  cannot  be  gathered  by  any 
covetousness  ; the  rubies  of  the  clouds,  the  vermilion  of  the  cloud- 
bar,  and  the  flame  of  the  cloud-crest,  and  the  snow  of  the  cloud, 


PARAGRAPHS. 


63 


and  its  shadow,  and  the  melted  blue  of  the  deep  wells  of  the  sky — 
all  these,  seized  by  the  creating  spirit,  and  w^oven  into  films  and 
threads  of  plume  ; with  wave  on  wave  following  and  fading  along 
breast,  and  throat,  and  opened  wings,  infinite  as  the  dividing  of 
the  foam  and  the  sifting  of  the  sea-sand ; — even  the  white  down 
of  the  cloud  seeming  to  flutter  up  between  the  stronger  plumes, 
seen,  but  too  soft  for  touch.  — Ruskin. 

Examine  the  paragraphs  in  this  selection.  You  will 
find  that  each  paragraph  is  a unit,  — that  is,  it  treats  of  a 
particular  thing  or  idea  or  phase  of  the  subject.  It 
would  be  easy  for  you  to  give  a brief  title  to  each 
paragraph  which  would  indicate  its  contents.  Thus 
the  first  paragraph  might  be  entitled  ‘‘  The  Air  in  the 
Bird  ” ; the  second,  ‘‘  The  Voice  of  the  Bird”;  the  third, 
‘‘  The  Colors  of  the  Bird.”  In  other  words,  the  para- 
graphs observe  the  principle  of  unity. 


Every  piece  of  prose  of  any  length  is  divided  into 
sections  called  paragraphs,  each  of  which  treats  of  a 
particular  point  or  phase  of  the  subject. 

A very  brief  composition,  relating  to  a single  point, 
and  not  subdivided,  is  also  called  a paragraph. 

Every  paragraph  should  observe  the  principle  of  unity. 

In  writing  and  printing,  the  first  line  of  every  paragraph  is 
indented,  — that  is,  it  begins  a little  farther  to  the  right  than 
the  other  lines. 

The  wdimQ  paragraph  comes  from  two  Greek  words  and  means  “ some- 
thing written  at  the  side.”  It  was  originally  applied  to  the  mark 
which  was  put  in  the  margin  to  call  attention  to  the  beginning  of  a new 
section  or  division  of  the  writing;  later  the  name  was  transferred  to  the 
section  itself. 


64 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  59. 

Turn  to  one  of  the  selections  on  pages  8~16. 

Read  it  paragraph  by  paragraph,  and  try  to  give  the 
subject  of  each  paragraph  in  the  form  of  a brief  title. 

In  this  exercise  you  are  observing  the  unity  of  the 
paragraph.  If  the  paragraph  really  deals  with  a single 
point,  one  should  be  able  to  mention  that  point. 

Use  the  same  test  in  your  own  writing. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — Exercises  of  this  kind  may  be  multiplied  accord- 
ing to  the  needs  of  the  pupil.  Passages  from  text-books  in  history  and 
from  works  of  English  literature  may  he  used  in  the  same  way.  The 
comparison  of  the  paragraph  with  the  stanza  will  he  found  useful.  But 
the  pupil  should  be  reminded  that  most  stanzas  are  rigidly  fixed  as  to 
their  form, — whereas  the  length  and  form  of  the  paragraph  depend 
largely  on  the  purpose  of  the  writer,  — and  further,  that  the  poet  is  not 
hound  to  observe  unity  in  his  stanza.  The  difference  consists,  of  course, 
in  the  fact  that  the  stanza  is  primarily  a division  with  respect  to  form, 
and  the  paragraph  a division  with  respect  to  thought. 


SECTION  60. 

WRITTEN  CONVERSATION. 

In  reporting  a conversation,  each  speech,  however 
short,  is  usually  written  or  printed  as  a paragraph.  Thus, 

The  children  had  been  reading  about  the  war  in  Cuba. 

Does  any  one  know  what  a furlough  is  ? ” asked  the  teacher. 

Yes,’’  replied  a small  boy.  A furlough  is  a mule.” 

The  children  smiled. 

a Why  do  you  think  so  ? ” asked  the  teacher. 

I know  it  is,”  answered  the  small  boy.  I have  a picture  to 
prove  it.” 

The  lad  produced  iiis  picture.  It  was  called  ‘‘Off  on  a Fur- 
lough,” and  represented  a soldier  riding  on  a mule. 


THE  PARAGRAPH  AND  THE  STANZA. 


65 


SECTION  61. 

Write  a short  paragraph  about  the  War  with  Spain. 
Take  care  that  your  paragraph  does  not  include  too 
much. 

Criticise  your  own  paragraph  with  regard  to  unity. 


SECTION  62. 

THE  PARAGEAPH  ANTD  THE  STANTZA. 

Observe  that  the  paragraph  in  prose  is  very  much  what 
the  stanza  is  in  verse,  though  its  form  and  length  are 
not  fixed  as  in  the  case  of  the  stanza.^ 

Find  some  poem  that  is  composed  of  separate 
stanzas. 

Examine  each  stanza  as  you  examined  the  paragraphs 
in  Section  59,  and  try  to  give  a brief  title  to  each. 

SECTION  63. 

Tell  the  story  of  some  poem  with  which  you  are 
familiar. 

Write  the  story,  point  by  point,  taking  care  that  each 
paragraph  shall  deal  with  one  particular  point  or  inci- 
dent in  the  narrative. 

Compare  your  prose  story  with  the  poem  and  see  if 
the  paragraphs  correspond  to  the  stanzas  in  number  and 
contents. 

If  they  do  not,  tell  why. 

1 For  stanzas  and  their  structure,  see  Appendix. 


66 


THE  MOTHEE  TONGUE. 


SECTION  64. 

Write  two  or  three  paragraphs  about  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing subjects^:  — 

Some  wild  animal;  a walk  in  winter;  a visit  to  Canada;  a 
visit  to  Louisiana;  the  Romans;  the  North  American  Indians; 
war  and  peace;  football;  tennis;  boating;  swimming;  rivers; 
the  sea ; a mountain  ; a storm ; our  national  government ; an 
election  ; farming  ; mining. 

SECTION  65. 

You  are  called  upon  to  describe  your  town  or  city  to 
a stranger.  What  points  ought  you  to  mention  ? 

Write  down  these  points  as  they  occur  to  you,  giving 
a sentence  to  each. 

Arrange  the  points  in  an  orderly  manner,  beginning 
with  the  name  and  situation  of  your  town. 

Write  a single  paragraph  on  the  first  of  these  heads ; 
on  the  second ; on  the  third. 

SECTION  66. 

Observe  that  paragraphs  are  not  formed  by  cutting 
up  continuous  discourse  into  mechanical  lengths,  any 
more  than  stanzas  are  made  by  cutting  up  poetry. 

On  the  contrary,  continuous  discourse  grows  by 
adding  paragraph  to  paragraph,  as  our  thoughts  pass 
from  point  to  point  of  the  subject  in  orderly  succession. 

Copy  carefully  the  following  extract  from  Ruskin.^ 

1 The  teacher  may  use  this  material  for  several  lessons. 

2 In  this  exercise  the  pupil  should  be  led  to  observe  the  growth  of  the 
author’s  thought  and  the  correspondence  between  the  paragraphs  and  the 
development  of  the  meaning. 


PARAGRAPHS. 


67 


THE  SOCIETY  OF  GOOD  BOOKS. 

We  cannot  know  whom  we  would  ; and  those  whom  we  know 
we  cannot  have  at  our  side  when  we  most  need  them.  Y^et  there 
is  a society  continually  open  to  us,  of  people  who  will  talk  to  us 
as  long  as  we  like,  — talk  to  us  in  the  best  words  they  can  choose, 
and  of  the  things  nearest  their  hearts.  And  this  society,  because 
it  is  so  numerous  and  so  gentle,  and  can  be  kept  waiting  around 
us  all  daylong, — kings  and  statesmen  lingering  patiently,  not 
to  grant  audience,  but  to  gain  it ! — in  those  plainly  furnished 
and  narrow  anterooms,  our  bookcase  shelves, — we  make  no 
account  of  that  company,  — perhaps  never  listen  to  a word  they 
would  say,  all  day  long ! 

Suppose  you  could  be  put  behind  a screen,  should  you  not  be 
glad  to  listen  to  their  words,  though  you  were  forbidden  to 
advance  beyond  the  screen?  And  when  the  screen  is  only  a 
little  less,  folded  in  two  instead  of  four,  and  you  can  be  hidden 
behind  the  cover  of  the  two  boards  that  bind  a book,  and  listen 
all  day  long,  not  to  the  casual  talk,  but  to  the  studied,  determined, 
chosen  addresses  of  the  wisest  of  men,  — this  station  of  audience, 
and  honorable  privy  council,  you  despise ! 

This  eternal  court  is  always  open  to  you,  with  its  society  wide 
as  the  world,  multitudinous  as  its  days,  the  chosen,  and  the 
mighty,  of  every  place  and  time.  Into  that  you  may  enter 
always  ; in  that  you  may  take  fellowship  and  rank  according  to 
your  wish  ; from  that,  once  entered  into  it,  you  can  never  be  an 
outcast  but  by  your  own  fault. 

It  is  open  to  labor  and  to  merit,  but  to  nothing  else.  'No 
wealth  will  bribe,  no  name  overawe,  no  artifice  deceive,  the 
guardian  of  those  Elysian  gates.  In  the  deep  sense,  no  vile 
or  vulgar  person  ever  enters  there. 

Do  you  deserve  to  enter  ? Pass.  Do  you  ask  to  be  the  com- 
panion of  nobles  ? Make  yourself  noble,  and  you  shall  be.  Do 
you  long  for  the  conversation  of  the  wise  ? Learn  to  understand 
it,  and  you  shall  hear  it.  But  on  other  terms?  — no.  If  you  will 
not  rise  to  us,  we  cannot  stoop  to  you.” 


68 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  67. 

Write  in  your  own  words  the  substance  of  the 
extract  that  you  copied  in  Section  66. 

When  you  have  written  your  version,  see  if  you  have 
divided  it  into  paragraphs  properly. 

If  the  paragraphs  are  correct,  tell  why  they  are  cor- 
rect. If  they  are  incorrect,  make  them  right. 

SECTION  68. 

Write  an  account  of  a real  or  imaginary  excursion  to 
some  interesting  place. 

Let  your  story  consist  of  several  paragraphs : (1)  the 
object  of  the  excursion ; (2)  your  party ; (3)  your  jour- 
ney ; (4)  the  place ; (5)  your  return. 

SECTION  69. 

Examine  the  sentences  in  two  paragraphs  of  the  compo- 
sition in  Section  68,  and  tell  whether  they  are  units. 

If  any  of  the  sentences  do  not  observe  the  principle 
of  unity,  see  if  you  can  correct  them. 

SECTION  70. 

Examine  the  composition  of  some  other  member  of 
the  class  and  tell  whether  his  paragraphs  are  units. 

SECTION  71. 

Describe  the  appearance  and  habits  of  some  animal. 

Your  description  will  contain  at  least  two  paragraphs. 
What  will  be  the  subject  of  the  first  ? of  the  second  ? 


PARAGRAPHS. 


69 


SECTION  72. 

Make  notes  for  a composition  of  three  or  four  para- 
graphs about  England. 

Exchange  your  notes  with  your  neighbor. 

Write  the  paragraphs  suggested  by  his  notes. 

SECTION  73. 

Your  study  of  Ruskin  (pp.  66-67)  has  shown  you  that 
the  arrangement  of  the  paragraphs  in  a composition  is  a 
matter  of  great  importance.  The  principle  is  simple:  — 

The  succession  of  paragraphs  should  agree  with  the  natural 
order  of  the  thought. 

The  same  principle  applies  to  the  arrangement  of 
sentences  within  the  paragraph. 

Study  the  first  paragraph  on  page  67. 

What  thought  does  it  express?  Of  how  many  sen- 
tences does  it  consist  ? What  is  the  thought  contained 
in  each?  Does  the  arrangement  of  the  sentences  bring 
out  these  thoughts  in  a natural  order? 

Study  the  other  paragraphs  in  the  same  way. 

You  have  now  arrived  at  four  important  principles  : — 

1.  Every  sentence  should  be  a unit. 

2.  Every  paragraph  should  also  be  a unit. 

3.  The  sentences  in  a paragraph  should  follow  the  order  of 
thought. 

4.  The  paragraphs  in  a composition  should  also  follow  the 
order  of  thought. 

Try  to  observe  these  principles  in  everything  that 
you  write,  whether  letters,  essays,  or  written  “ tests.” 


70 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  74. 

STUDY  OF  PARAGRAPHS. 

Study  each  paragraph  in  the  selections  in  accordance 
with  the  following  plan : — 

, 1.  Read  the  paragraph,  to  get  at  its  meaning. 

2.  Determine  the  subject. 

3.  Tell  the  substance  of  the  paragraph  in  your  own  words. 

4.  Make  brief  notes  of  its  contents. 

5.  Rewrite  the  selection  from  your  notes. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — These  exercises  may  be  continued  with  selections 
from  text-books  in  history,  literature,  and  science. 

1.  It  grew  dark  as  we  stood  in  the  office  talking,  and,  taking 
our  hats,  we  went  out  together.  The  narrow  street  of  business  was 
deserted.  The  heavy  iron  shutters  were  gloomily  closed  over  the 
windows.  From  one  or  two  offices  struggled  the  dim  gleam  of 
an  early  candle,  by  whose  light  some  perplexed  accountant  sat 
belated,  and  hunting  for  his  error.  A careless  clerk  passed, 
whistling.  But  the  great  tide  of  life  had  ebbed.  We  heard  its 
roar  far  away,  and  the  sound  stole  into  that  silent  street  like  the 
murmur  of  the  ocean  into  an  inland  dell.  — Curtis. 

2.  We  might  fill  up  far  more  than  an  hour  in  speaking  of  those 
voices  which  come  to  us  as  nature  is  at  work.  Think  of  the 
patter  of  the  rain,  how  each  drop  as  it  hits  the  pavement  sends 
circles  of  sound-waves  out  on  all  sides ; or  the  loud  report  which 
falls  on  the  ear  of  the  Alpine  traveller  as  the  glacier  cracks  on  its 
way  down  the  valley;  or  the  mighty  boom  of  the  avalanche  as 
the  snow  slides  in  huge  masses  off  the  side  of  the  lofty  mountain. 
Each  and  all  of  these  create  their  sound-waves,  large  or  small, 
loud  or  feeble,  which  make  their  way  to  your  ear,  and  become 
converted  into  sound.  — Arabella  Buckley.^ 


1 From  “ Fairyland  of  Science.” 


TRANSITION. 


71 


3.  The  room  was  as  neat  as  Janet  or  my  aunt.  As  I laid  down 
my  pen,  a moment  since,  to  think  of  it,  the  air  from  the  sea 
came  blowing  in  again,  mixed  with  the  perfume  of  the  flowers ; 
and  I saw  the  old-fashioned  furniture  brightly  rubbed  and  pol- 
ished, my  aunt’s  inviolable  chair  and  table  by  the  round  green 
fan  in  the  bow-window,  the  drugget-covered  carpet,  the  cat,  the 
kettle-holder,  the  two  canaries,  the  old  china,  the  punch-bowl  full 
of  dried  rose-leaves,  the  tall  press  guarding  all  sorts  of  bottles 
and  pots,  and,  wonderfully  out  of  keeping  with  the  rest,  my  dusty 
self  upon  the  sofa,  taking  note  of  everything.  — Dickens. 


SECTION  75. 

TRANSITION. 

A good  writer  does  not  force  his  readers  to  jump  from 
sentence  to  sentence  and  from  paragraph  to  paragraph. 
He  smooths  the  path  for  them,  so  that  they  go  on  by 
easy  stages,  without  great  effort  or  undue  delay. 

In  other  words,  a good  writer  is  careful  about  transition. 

Transition  (from  the  Latin  tranSy  “across,”  and  ire,  “to  go”)  means 
simply  “ the  act  or  process  of  crossing  ” (as  a stream  or  mountain  range). 

Read  over  “ The  Society  of  Good  Books  ” (p.  67),  and 
observe  how  easy  you  find  it  to  follow  the  writer’s  thought. 

Transition  is  assisted  by  a careful  arrangement  of 
words,  so  that  the  end  of  one  sentence  leads  up  to  the 
beginning  of  another ; or,  in  paragraphs,  by  similar  care 
in  the  arrangement  of  sentences. 

Frequently,  too,  a whole  sentence  is  needed,  not  for 
anything  new  that  it  has  to  tell,  but  merely  for  the  help 
it  gives  in  showing  the  connection  of  thought.  In  a 
long  essay,  a paragraph  may  be  needed  for  precisely  the 
same  purpose. 


72 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


An  easy  passage  (transition)  from  sentence  to  sen- 
tence is  often  effected  by  the  use  of  words  and  phrases 
like  however^  nevertheless^  thus^  hence^  also^  so^  in  this 
way^  such.  These  connectives,  however,  should  not  be 
used  idly,  — merely  to  fill  up  ” or  “ make  the  sentence 
smooth.”  They  have  their  several  meanings  and  assist 
in  expressing  the  connection  of  thought. 

A pronoun  referring  to  a noun  in  the  preceding  sen- 
tence often  serves  the  purpose  of  transition. 

Careless  speakers  and  writers  have  a habit,  in  telling 
a story,  of  tacking  their  sentences  together  with  ancZ’s. 
A moment’s  thought  will  show  how  slovenly  this  habit 
is,  even  in  ordinary  conversation.  But  is  also  over-used 
by  many  persons. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — The  principle  of  transition  should  now  be  studied 
in  passages  of  some  length,  and  for  this  purpose  the  particular  piece  of 
literature  which  the  pupils  are  reading  may  be  utilized.  The  bad  effect 
of  omitting  transitional  particles,  phrases,  and  sentences  from  a smooth 
piece  of  connected  prose  may  be  made  clear  to  the  youngest  pupils  by 
experiment. 


SECTION  76. 


Write  at  least  three  paragraphs  about  one  of  the  sub- 
jects in  the  following  list.  Your  composition  may  take 
the  form  of  a report  of  something  that  you  have  learned 
in  studying  history,  geography,  or  science. 


The  Surrender  of  Cornwallis. 
Major  Andre. 

The  Study  of  Ferns. 

King  Philip’s  War. 

The  Great  River  Systems. 
Magna  Charta. 


Burgoyne’s  Invasion. 

Ethan  Allen. 

The  Continental  Congress. 
Early  Life  in  Virginia. 

The  Spaniards  in  California. 
Electricity  and  Rapid  Transit. 


ORAL  COMPOSITION. 


73 


SECTION  77. 

OUTLINES  FOR  ORAL  COMPOSITION. 

Prepare  to  talk  for  two  minutes  upon  one  of  the 
following  subjects.  Your  preparation  may  consist  in 
observing  the  thing  which  you  are  to  describe,  in  reading 
about  it,  or  in  talking  about  it  with  people  who  know 
more  than  you  do.  Make  notes  of  what  you  see,  hear, 
and  read ; think  carefully  about  the  subject,  and  be  ready 
to  talk  clearly  in  the  order  presented  in  the  outline. 

Speak  distinctly,  slowly  enough  to  make  it  easy  to 
follow  your  meaning,  and  in  a pleasant  tone.  Pronounce 
your  words  accurately,  not  clipping  or  slurring  them  as 
in  rapid  and  careless  conversation.  Think  of  your 
hearers  rather  than  of  yourself. 

1.  A schoolboy’s  Saturday. 

a.  What  he  planned  to  do. 

h.  What  he  did. 

2.  Describe  a church  in  your  town. 

a.  General  appearance,  — site,  style  of  architecture,  size, 
material. 

h.  Interior. 

3.  My  pencil. 

a.  Tell  just  what  it  is. 

h.  The  manufacture  of  pencils.  (Learn  all  that  you  can 
about  it,  by  conversation  or  reading.) 

(a)  Materials  used. 

(&)  Sources  of  materials. 

(c)  Process  of  manufacture. 

(d)  Well-known  firms  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 

pencils. 

c.  Persons  who  need  to  use  pencils. 


74 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


4.  How  to  build  a fire. 

a.  Preparation  of  the  place. 
h.  Collection  of  materials. 

c.  Arrangement  of  material. 

d.  Care  of  the  fire. 

5.  Fuel  (wood,  coal,  coke,  oil,  gas). 

a.  Source. 

h.  Cost. 

c.  Advantages. 

d.  Disadvantages. 

6.  Hollyhocks. 

a.  Describe  the  flowers. 
h.  Tell  how  to  cultivate  them. 

7.  How  to  care  for  a lawn. 

a.  Describe  a well-kept  lawn. 

b.  Describe  the  means  by  which  a lawn  is  kept  in  good 

condition. 

8.  How  bricks  are  made. 

a.  What  are  bricks  ? 

b.  From  what  material  are  they  made  ? 

c.  Where  are  brickyards  naturally  situated  ? 

d.  What  is  the  process  of  making  bricks  V 

9.  Charcoal. 

a.  Tell  what  it  is. 

b.  Describe  the  manufacture  of  charcoal. 

c.  Chief  uses. 

(a)  For  what. 

(5)  By  whom. 

10.  Cranberries. 

a.  The  berry. 

b.  The  cranberry  plant. 

c.  How  the  cranberry  is  cultivated. 

d.  Chief  sources  of  supply. 

e.  Uses  of  the  berry. 


ORAL  COMPOSITION. 


75 


11.  How  to  set  up  a tent. 

a.  Description  of  the  tent. 
h.  Appropriate  place  for  a tent. 

c.  Process  of  setting  it  up. 

12.  Describe  a top.  Give  directions  for  spinning  it. 

13.  The  building  of  a schoolhouse. 

a.  Initial  steps.  By  whom  are  they  taken  ? 
h.  Authority  to  build.  In  whom  is  it  vested  ? 

c.  Location  of  the  schoolhouse.  What  determines  it? 

By  whom  is  the  site  selected? 

d.  Size  of  the  building.  What  determines  it?  Who 

decides  this  point? 

e.  The  amount  to  be  appropriated  and  expended.  What 

determines  this  ? What  authority  finally  decides  the 
matter  ? 

f.  Steps  taken  in  securing  the  plans  and  locating  the 

building.  Outline  them. 

g.  Trades  represented  in  the  transaction. 

h.  What  persons  are  or  should  be  interested  in  securing 

an  adequate  building  ? Why  ? 

14.  Describe  an  ideal  school  building. 
a.  Explain  the  necessary  elements. 

h.  Explain  the  desirable  features.  Present  these  from 
the  point  of  view  of  (a)  the  pupil ; (b)  the  teacher  ; 
(c)  the  tax-payer. 

15.  The  carpenter. 

a.  What  is  his  work? 

b.  What  materials  does  he  work  with  ? 

c.  What  tools  does  he  require  ? Describe  some  of  them. 

d.  How  does  he  learn  his  trade  ? 

e.  What  studies  in  school  contribute  directly  to  his 

preparation  ? 

16.  Following  the  topics  outlined  in  Exercise  15,  describe  the 
work  of  the  blacksmith  ; the  electrician  ; the  mason  ; the  plumber ; 
the  merchant. 


76 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


17.  You  intend  to  live  for  the  next  few  years  in  a very  warm 
climate.  What  changes  will  this  involve  — 

a.  In  your  dress  ? 

1).  In  your  diet? 

c.  In  your  habits  of  life? 

18.  Describe  some  game  which  you  like  to  play,  in  accordance 
with  the  following  outline  : — 

a.  The  players  required. 

h.  Materials  supplied  for  the  game. 

c.  Object  of  the  game. 

d.  Rules  of  the  game. 

19.  Should  the  owners  of  woodland  cut  down  trees  without 
restriction  ? Give  reasons  for  and  against  such  restriction. 

20.  Relate  some  incident  of  your  childhood. 

a.  Explain  whatever  is  necessary  to  make  a background 
for  your  story. 

Relate  the  incident,  coming  directly  to  the  point. 

21.  Recite  an  Indian  story.  Write  a brief  outline  to  aid  you 
in  telling  it. 

22.  Describe  some  contest  which  you  have  seen,  — for  example, 
a yacht  race,  a tennis  tournament,  or  a football  game. 

23.  The  history  of  one  day.  Outline  the  events  of  a day  spent 
in  visiting  some  interesting  place,  as  the  Yellowstone  Park,  the 
Buffalo  Exposition,  a state  university,  a manufactory,  or  a farm. 
Relate  the  chief  incidents  of  the  day  in  order,  and  describe  clearly 
the  characteristic  features  of  the  scene. 

24.  Recite  an  old  fairy  tale.  If  possible,  secure  a short  one 
with  a variety  of  incident.  The  Grimm  Brothers,  Mr.  Joseph 
Jacobs,  and  Mr.  Andrew  Lang  have  gathered  abundant  material 
from  which  you  may  select. 

25.  Learn  some  story  concerning  the  history  of  your  native 
town.  Your  material  may  be  obtained  by  conversation  with 
older  members  of  the  community,  or  by  reading.  Tell  the 
story  clearly,  applying  all  that  you  have  learned  thus  far  in 
composition. 


LETTER-WRITING. 


77 


SECTION  78, 

LETTER -WRITING. 

Most  people  use  what  they  know  of  the  art  of  com- 
position much  more  frequently  in  writing  letters  than 
in  any  other  way.  Practice  in  this  art  enables  us  to 
express  our  thoughts  freely,  clearly,  and  agreeably,  and 
thus  to  make  our  letters  effective  as  well  as  pleasant  to 
read.  On  the  other  hand,  a neglect  of  the  principles  of 
composition  confuses  the  reader  and  thus  defeats  the 
whole  purpose  of  letter-writing.  An  illegible  and  badly 
spelled  letter,  not  divided  into  paragraphs,  and  defying 
all  sense  of  unity,  not  only  annoys  the  recipient,  but 
may  give  him  a poor  opinion  of  the  writer’s  intelligence 
and  education. 

There  are  two  main  lines  of  study  and  practice  which 
are  essential  to  letter-writing.  These  are  readily  shown 
by  an  analysis  of  the  following  letters. 


I. 

[An  informal  letter  from  a sister  to  her  brother.] 

260  Caroline  St., 
Saratoga,  N.  Y., 

Jan.  7,  1902. 

Dear  Frank, 

I reached  Saratoga  yesterda}^,  after  a very  pleasant  ride  througli 
the  Berkshire  Hills.  The  railroad  follows  the  bed  of  a winding 
stream,  which  proved  a very  agreeable  travelling  companion. 

Saratoga  is  quite  as  attractive  in  the  winter  as  in  the  summer. 
The  pines  here  are  splendid ; and  the  snow  that  fell  last  night 
makes  them  look  bigger  and  statelier  than  ever.  We  are  going 
out  to  walk  in  the  woods  this  afternoon. 


78 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


I forgot  my  trunk  key,  like  a goose.  I left  it  on  the  hall  table. 
Can  you  send  it  to  me  by  return  mail?  Possibly  you  have  sent 
it  already.  That  would  be  like  you. 

This  letter  goes  in  haste,  — merely  to  tell  you  of  my  safe 
arrival.  But  there  is  time  to  remind  you  to  keep  your  promise 
and  write  to  me  as  often  as  you  can. 

Your  loving  sister, 

Margaret. 


II. 

[A  friendly  letter  from  a gentleman  to  a business  acquaintance.] 

13  Chestnut  Terrace, 

Auburn,  N.  Y., 
Oct.  15,  1900. 

Dear  Mr.  Thompson, 

In  our  conversation  last  Tuesday,  you  referred  to  your  son 
Robert,  and  mentioned  his  desire  to  make  a bicycle  tour  through 
England  and  Wales.  To-day  my  cousin,  Frank  Meade,  tells  me 
that  he  intends  to  spend  next  summer  in  England,  and  that  he  is 
looking  for  a travelling  companion. 

Frank  is  a fine  fellow,  — well-bred,  sensible,  and  trustworthy, 
a good  comrade  and  an  excellent  traveller.  He  graduated  from 
Cornell  in  '92,  and  has  been  abroad  three  times  since. 

It  at  once  occurred  to  me  that  Robert  might  wish  to  accompany 
Frank.  They  would  like  each  other,  I am  sure.  If  you  care  to 
consider  the  matter,  I will  ask  Frank  to  call  upon  you,  and  you 
can  talk  it  over  together.  He  tells  me  that  he  intends  to  be  in 
Rochester  early  next  week. 

Sincerely  yours, 

John  F.  Morgan. 

Arthur  S.  Thompson,  Esq., 

1120  Main  St., 

Rochester,  N.  Y. 


LETTER-AVKITING. 


79 


III. 

[A  business  letter,  ordering  books.] 

Oakview  School, 
Syracuse,  IST.Y., 
Sept.  11,  1900. 

Messrs.  Abbot,  Carnes  & Co., 

21  Astor  Place, 

New  York  City. 

Gentlemen  : 

Please  send  me,  by  express,  C.  O.  D.,  fifty  (50)  copies  of  Stuart’s 
“ Note  Books,”  No.  3. 

We  need  the  books  at  once,  and  have  just  discovered  that  our 
supply  is  exhausted. 

Very  truly  yours, 

Marshall  T.  Brown. 

These  three  examples  illustrate  the  common  charac- 
teristics of  all  letters. 

Observe,  in  the  first  place,  that  each  letter  is  written 
for  the  purpose  of  conveying  a message.  That  is  its 
main  business.  It  follows,  then,  that  the  writer  must 
know  how  to  compose  his  message,  or  express  his 
thought,  in  an  appropriate  manner  — clearly,  so  that 
it  may  be  understood,  and  courteously,  so  that  it  may 
be  agreeably  received. 

It  is  evident  that  the  relation  of  the  writer  to  the 
reader  determines  the  style  of  each  letter. 

No.  1,  a letter  from  a sister  to  a brother,  is  altogether 
informal.  The  writer  speaks  of  personal  pleasures  and 
tastes,  assumes  her  brother’s  interest  in  her  agreeable 
journey  and  safe  arrival,  asks  his  help  in  recovering  the 
key  of  her  trunk,  and  gracefully  acknowledges  his 


80 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


thoughtfulness.  Though  the  note  is  brief,  she  has  time 
to  remind  her  brother  of  the  pleasure  which  his  letters 
always  give  her. 

No.  2 is  a friendly  letter  of  a business  nature,  and  is 
therefore  somewhat  more  formal  than  No.  1.  It  presents, 
in  simple  and  direct  language,  a matter  of  interest  to 
the  recipient.  Observe  the  manner  in  which  young 
Mr.  Meade  is  introduced  to  Mr.  Thompson.  Study  the 
letter  as  a composition. 

No.  3 is  a business  letter  pure  and  simple,  such  as 
pass  between  people  who  have  business  relations  merely. 
It  is  brief  and  concise.  The  second  sentence  explains 
the  necessity  for  rapid  delivery,  and  gives  the  reason 
for  the  comparatively  small  order.  Personal  allusions 
are  omitted.  The  statement  is  brief,  definite,  and  busi- 
nesslike. 

Study  all  three  letters  carefully.  Observe  the  sen- 
tences and  the  paragraphs  as  well  as  the  general  style. 

SECTION  79. 

THE  PARTS  OF  A LETTER. 

The  principles  which  govern  all  composition  apply 
to  letter-writing.  The  writer  should  have  clearly  in 
mind  what  he  wishes  to  say,  should  make  his  meaning 
clear,  and  should  express  himself  in  a style  appropriate 
to  the  occasion.  He  is  helped  to  do  this  by  the  general 
principles  of  composition,  and,  further,  by  certain  rules 
or  customs  of  arrangement. 

These  rules  or  customs  enable  us  to  make  our  letters 
intelligible  with  the  least  possible  trouble  to  ourselves 


THE  PARTS  OF  A LETTER. 


81 


and  our  correspondents.  A study  of  tlie  three  letters 
on  pages  77-79  will  make  this  perfectly  clear. 

For  example,  we  find  at  the  right-hand  upper  corner 
of  each  letter  a ‘‘heading,”  which  includes  the  address 
of  the  writer  and  the  date  of  writing. 

From  this  heading  the  recipient  can  tell  at  a glance 
how  to  address  his  reply.  He  is  not  forced  to  search 
through  the  letter  to  find  out  where  his  correspondent 
resides  or  is  staying.  If  Margaret  omits  the  address 
in  writing  to  her  brother  Frank,  she  may  fail  to  receive 
her  key.  If  Mr.  Morgan  omits  his  address,  Mr.  Thompson 
may  be  put  to  the  trouble  of  consulting  old  letters,  or 
the  Directory,  before  he  can  reply  to  the  letter.  If  Mr. 
Brown  omits  his  address,  he  may  prevent  the  early 
delivery  of  the  books  which  he  needs  so  much. 

The  date  is  equally  important,  even  in  friendly 
letters.  “ I shall  be  in  town  to-morrow,”  writes  Mr. 
Adams  to  his  son,  “and  shall  take  luncheon  at  the 
Astor  House  at  one  o’clock.  Come  and  lunch  with 
me.”  But  if  the  date  is  omitted  from  the  heading,  and 
the  letter  happens  to  be  delayed,  the  son  has  no  means 
of  knowing  what  day  is  referred  to  as  “ to-morrow.” 

Thus  a brief  study  will  suffice  to  show  that  the  for- 
mal customs  which  are  established  in  letter-writing  are 
dictated  by  convenience.  Certain  forms  are  generally 
agreed  upon,  which  it  is  only  sensible  to  regard.  Short 
notes  to  intimate  friends  may  dispense  with  ceremony ; 
but  even  in  these  the  settled  customs  of  letter-writing 
should  usually  be  followed. 

The  following  summary  will  serve  as  a review  of  the 
essential  rules  which  govern  the  formal  arrangement  of 
letters. 


82 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


A letter  consists  of  the  following  parts : — 

I.  The  heading,  which  should  contain  the  writer's 
address  in  full  and  the  date.  Thus,  — 


260  Caroline  St., 
Saratoga,  N.Y., 
Jail.  7,  1902. 


Hobart  College, 
Geneva,  N.  Y., 
Oct.  8,  1901. 


Waco,  Kas., 
Feb.  3,  1902. 


Marshfield,  Mass.. 


Dec.  2,  1900. 


For  the  position  of  the  heading,  see  the  letters  on 
pages  77-79. 

II.  The  salutation,  which  takes  various  forms  accord- 
ing to  the  relation  between  the  writer  and  the  recipient. 
Thus, 

Dear  Madam,  My  dear  Sir, 

My  dear  Madam,  Dear  Sirs, 

Dear  Sir,  Gentlemen : 

are  appropriate  salutations  in  business  letters.  “ My 
dear  Sir  ” is  more  formal  than  “ Dear  Sir.” 

Dear  Mr.  Jackson,  My  dear  Mrs.  Hatch, 

Dear  Mrs.  Erroll,  My  dear  Miss  Eernald, 

are  proper  in  friendly  letters,  or  in  business  letters 
addressed  to  a person  whom  one  knows  well. 

Dear  James,  Dear  Uncle, 

My  dear  John,  Dear  Edith, 

Dear  Cousin  Mary,  My  dear  Elizabeth, 

are  proper  in  familiar  letters. 


The  salutation  may  be  followed  by  a comma,  by  a comma  and 
a dash,  by  a colon,  or  by  a colon  and  a dash.  The  comma  is  least 


THE  PARTS  OF  A LETTER. 


83 


formal.  In  business  letters,  the  Colon  (with  or  without  the  dash) 
is  often  preferred,  especially  after  Gentlemen. ’’ 

In  formal  business  letters,  it  is  better  to  insert  the 
name  and  address  of  the  recipient  before  the  salutation. 
See  this  arrangement  in  No.  3,  on  page  79. 

For  the  position  of  the  salutation,  see  pp.  77-79. 

III.  The  body  of  the  letter,  which  consists  of  the  mes- 
sage itself.  This  should  be  legibly  and  clearly  written, 
in  paragraphs,  each  of  which  should  cover  a single  point 
completely.  This  part  of  the  letter  should  also  be  care- 
fully punctuated,  and  expressed  in  a style  appropriate  to 
the  occasion. 

IV.  The  formal  closing.  This  is  merely  a courteous 
phrase,  indicating  the  relation  in  which  the  writer  stands 
to  his  correspondent.  Thus,  in  business  letters, — 

Yours  truly.  Yours  sincerely. 

Very  truly  yours.  Sincerely  yours. 

Respectfully  yours.  Very  sincerely  yours. 

Or,  in  familiar  or  affectionate  letters,  — 

Faithfully  yours.  Your  loving  son. 

Yours  cordially.  Yours,  with  love. 

Observe  that  the  forms  given  in  the  first  list  are  not 
all  suitable  for  every  kind  of  business  letter.  Yours 
truly”  or  Very  truly  yours  ” will  fit  almost  any  such 
letter.  The  forms  with  ‘‘  sincerely  ” are  more  intimate 
and  less  formal.  ‘‘  Respectfully  yours  ” should  never 
be  used  unless  special  respect  is  intended.  It  is  proper 
in  writing  to  a high  official  or  to  a person  much  older 


84 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


than  one’s  self.  In  an  ordinary  business  letter,  how- 
ever, it  should  not  be  used.  It  is  in  very  questionable 
taste  to  add  Yours  respectfully”  to  an  order,  ‘ for 
example,  like  that  in  No.  3,  p.  79.  When  in  doubt, 
write  ‘‘Very  truly  yours,”  which  is  always  safe. 

V.  The  signature.  Except  in  very  familiar  letters,  this 
is  the  name  of  the  writer  in  the  form  which  he  habitually 
uses  in  signing  a document. 

If  the  writer  is  a lady,  she  should  indicate  whether  she  is  to  be 
addressed  as  Miss  or  as  Mrs.  This  may  be  done  by  prefixing  the 
title  (in  parentheses')  to  the  signature:  — (Miss)  Alice  Atherton. 
Or  the  proper  form  may  be  written  below  the  signature,  and  at 
the  left  of  the  page. 

The  name  and  address  of  the  person  for  whom  a letter 
is  intended  are  usually  placed  either  above  the  salutation 
(as  in  No.  3,  p.  79),  or  below  the  signature  and  at  the 
left  of  the  page  (as  in  No.  2).  In  familiar  letters  the 
latter  arrangement  is  usual,  but  the  address  is  often 
omitted. 

VI.  The  superscription  or  the  direction,  which  is  written 
on  the  envelope,  consists  of  the  name  and  address  of 
the  person  to  whom  the  letter  is  sent. 

Mr.  John  Eliot  Newell 

65  State  Street 

Richmond 

Virginia 

[Or,  — John  Eliot  Newell,  Esq.] 

Commas  are  not  needed  at  the  ends  of  lines  in  the 
superscription.  An  abbreviation,  however,  should  of 
course  be  followed  by  a period  (as  St.  for  Street). 


FRIENDLY  LETTERS. 


85 


SECTION  80. 

FRIENDLY  LETTERS. 

Friendly  letters,  as  we  have  seen,  aim  to  do  rather 
more  than  merely  to  convey  information ; they  aim  to 
give  pleasure  as  well.  In  such  letters,  then,  we  try  to 
write  more  vividly  than  in  ordinary  business  communica- 
tions ; we  describe  things  that  seem  likely  to  interest 
our  friends,  and  we  tell  amusing  or  exciting  incidents 
that  have  come  to  our  notice.  We  also  express  ourselves 
less  formally  and  with  greater  freedom. 

Since  your  object  in  such  a letter  is  to  make  some  one 
understand  what  you  are  doing  and  enter  into  your  feel- 
ings, you  should  always  consider  whether  your  corre- 
spondent is  already  acquainted  with  the  persons  or 
places  that  you  are  to  mention.  If  he  is  not,  you  will 
naturally  give  a good  deal  of  your  space  to  describing 
them;  if  he  is,  you  may  come  to  the  subject  at  once, 
without  any  preliminary  description.  Do  not  neglect 
the  little  things  of  life.  The  best  kind  of  family  letter 
is  that  which  reproduces  the  pleasantness  of  everyday 
affairs. 


SECTION  81. 

1.  Write  to  your  friend  Harold  Starr,  who  lives  in  Grafton, 
Nebraska,  asking  him  to  spend  the  Christmas  holidays  with  you. 
Tell  him  what  you  will  do  to  make  his  visit  agreeable. 

2.  Your  friend  Richard  Upham,  who  lives  in  Winchester, 
Pennsylvania,  writes  to  ask  for  directions  which  will  help  him  to 
get  from  the  railroad  station  in  your  city  to  your  house.  Reply, 
giving  him  careful  directions. 


86 


THE  MOTHER  TO^^GUE. 


3.  Write  to  your  friend  Arthur  Fulton,  who  lives  in  Chicago, 
telling  him  what  you  did  in  the  Christmas  holidays. 

4.  Imagine  that  you  have  a cousin  who  lives  in  another  state, 
in  Germany,  or  in  Honolulu.  Write  to  him  (or  her)  about  the 
place  you  live  in,  its  climate,  its  surroundings,  and  so  on.  Tell 
something  about  your  school  and  your  amusements. 

5.  Your  friend  Edith  Graham  writes  to  ask  you  about  a school 
in  your  town  which  she  thinks  of  attending  next  year.  Reply  to 
her  letter. 

6.  Your  friend  Anna  Colby  writes  to  ask  you  about  the  place 
in  which  you  spent  your  last  summer  vacation.  Answer  her, 
telling  her  why  you  think  that  she  would  like  the  place. 

7.  Your  friend  Alfred  Maybury  writes  to  ask  you  about  a 
camping  trip  you  made  last  summer  to  a lake  near  your  home. 
Answer  him,  explaining  what  he  will  need  in  the  way  of  outfit, 
and  giving  him  any  other  information  that  is  likely  to  be  useful 
to  him  in  preparing  for  a similar  trip. 

8.  One  of  your  classmates  has  been  ill  in  a hospital,  but  is 
convalescent.  Write  to  him,  telling  what  has  happened  at  school 
during  his  illness.  You  will  of  course  tell  him  that  he  has  been 
missed,  and  that  you  are  glad  to  hear  of  his  recovery. 

9.  Write  a reply  to  No.  8,  describing  life  in  the  hospital  and 
asking  questions  about  the  progress  of  the  class. 

10.  Imagine  yourself  at  Manila.  Write  to  your  cousin  at  home. 
Tell  her  how  the  climate  differs  from  that  of  your  own  city ; 
describe  the  appearance  of  Manila  and  the  habits  of  the  people, 
and  add  anything  else  which  may  be  of  interest. 

11.  Write  from  Paris  to  your  friend  Elbert  Smith  in  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.  Describe  some  of  the  interesting  places  that  you  have 
visited. 

12.  You  are  snow-bound  on  your  way  from  Albany  to  Cleve- 
land, and  delayed  for  fifteen  hours.  Telegraph  to  your  friends  in 
Cleveland,  assuring  them  of  your  safety  and  explaining  the  delay. 

After  your  arrival  in  Cleveland,  write  a letter  home  and 
describe  your  journey. 


FEIENDLY  LETTERS. 


87 


13.  You  are  a passenger  on  a steamship  bound  from  Liverpool 
to  Boston.  The  propeller  is  broken,  and  after  two  days’  drifting 
your  ship  is  discovered  by  an  ocean  liner  and  is  towed  back  to 
Queenstown.  Send  a message  by  cable  informing  your  friends 
that  you  are  safe. 

Write  a letter  home,  recounting  your  experiences. 

14o  Open  a correspondence  with  a class  in  some  other  high 
school.  Thus,  — 

Write  an  introductory  letter  to  the  teacher  of  the  class  or  to 
some  pupil  in  it. 

Write  an  appropriate  reply  to  your  letter. 

15.  Write  to  your  grandmother  in  Vermont,  saying  that  you 
mean  to  spend  the  Christmas  holidays  with  her.  Tell  what  you 
have  been  doing,  why  your  parents  wish  you  to  go,  and  why 
you  desire  to  make  the  visit. 

Write  a reply  to  the  letter  just  outlined. 

16.  Your  friend  Elmer  Eaton  is  a freshman  at  college.  He 
writes  to  you,  describing  the  college  and  outlining  some  of  his 
experiences  there.  Reproduce  the  letter. 

17.  Your  cousin  Ethel  Wright  sends  you  a letter  from  the 

school  at  which  she  is  studying.  She  informs  you  that  her 
friend  and  classmate  Miss  Jane  Merriam  is  to  spend  a week 
in  your  city,  and  asks  you  to  call  on  Miss  Merriam.  Reproduce 
the  letter.  ^ 

18.  Write  to  your  friend  Geoffrey  Nelson,  who  lives  in  Colum- 
bus, Ohio,  asking  him  to  spend  his  summer  vacation  with  you. 
Tell  him  what  you  will  do  to  make  his  visit  agreeable.  Your 
father  and  mother  join  in  the  invitation. 

19.  Write  a descriptive  letter  from  one  of  the  places  named 
below : — 


Paris, 


Honolulu, 

Rome, 

Stockholm, 

Calcutta, 

San  Francisco. 


Edinburgh, 

Melbourne, 


St.  Petersburg, 
Hongkong, 


88 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


20.  You  are  spending  the  summer  in  the  White  Mountains. 
Write  to  your  cousin  Eleanor,  asking  her  to  make  you  a month’s 
visit.  Describe  the  pleasures  of  life  among  the  mountains,  and 
tell  her  how  to  prepare  for  her  visit.  Give  definite  directions 
about  trains,  connections,  etc. 

21.  You  wish  to  organize  a little  club  for  the  study  of  history. 

Write  to  your  teacher,  submitting  your  plan  and  asking  advice. 

Write  the  teacher’s  reply. 

Write  to  two  friends,  asking  them  to  meet  you  at  a certain 
time  and  place,  to  consult  about  the  plan. 

Write  replies  to  these  notes,  (1)  accepting  the  invitation, 
(2)  declining  and  giving  the  reason. 

The  mother  of  one  of  your  classmates  sends  you  a note  pro- 
posing that  the  meetings  be  held  at  her  house.  Write  this  note. 

Acknowledge  the  note,  accepting  the  invitation. 


SECTION  82. 

BUSINESS  LETTERS. 

In  writing  a business  letter,  remember  that  you  are 
addressing  a man  who  has  no  time  to  waste,  and  who 
wants  to  learn  certain  specific  facts  as  quickly  and  as 
accurately  as  possible.  On  the  facts  which  you  set 
before  him  he  will  act,  and  his  action  may  mean  profit 
or  loss  to  both  of  you. 

A business  letter  should  therefore  set  forth  the  facts 
which  you  think  the  recipient  ought  to  know,  and  no 
other  facts.  It  should  state  these  facts  as  clearly  and 
concisely  as  possible,  and  should  make  each  separate 
fact  stand  out  distinctly  by  itself  so  that  it  will  catch 
the  reader’s  attention  at  once. 

Address  the  envelope  clearly  with  the  name,  the 
street  and  number  (or  the  post-office  box),  and  the  other 


BUSINESS  LETTERS. 


89 


necessary  details  of  the  superscription  in  the' conven- 
tional order.  The  address  on  the  envelope  is  for  the 
people  in  the  post  office,  who  have  to  sort  and  distribute 
an  inconceivable  number  of  letters  every  day.  Bad 
handwriting  and  every  deviation  fj*om  the  regular  order 
are  stumbling  blocks  to  them,  and  may  therefore  result 
in  delaying  your  letter. 

Sign  your  name  so  clearly  that  it  cannot  be  mis- 
taken. There  is  no  more  foolish  affectation  than  a 
showy  signature  which  is  hard  to  read. 

Answer  business  letters  by  return  mail  if  possible.  If 
you  can  do  no  more,  send  a line  acknowledging  the  receipt 
of  the  letter  and  promising  to  attend  to  it  immediately. 

In  replying  to  a business  letter,  you  should  first 
acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  correspondent’s  letter, 
mentioning  the  date  on  which  it  was  written,  or  giving 
some  other  mark  of  identification.  Acknowledge  any 
enclosure  which  your  correspondent  has  made,  either 
by  the  general  phrase,  “with  enclosures  as  stated,”  or, 
in  more  important  cases,  by  naming  the  enclosures 
separately.  It  is  often  wise  to  repeat  the  general  tenor 
of  the  letter  that  you  are  answering.  Then  take  up 
each  point,  — if  possible  in  the  order  in  which  you  find 
them  in  your  correspondent’s  letter;  this  will  make  it 
easier  for  both  you  and  him  to  compare  the  correspond- 
ence. Answer  directly  and  definitely  such  questions  as 
he  has  asked ; make  any  explanation  which  seems 
necessary,  and  then  go  on  to  any  new  subject  which 
you  wish  to  raise. 

In  business  letters  it  is  well  to  give  a separate  para- 
graph to  each  of  the  points  on  which  you  are  conveying 
information,  or  asking  for  information. 


90 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  83. 

BUSINESS  LETTERS. 

1.  John  Smith  is  the  owner  of  a canal  boat  which  runs  on  the 
Erie  Canal.  Write  to  him  in  order  to  make  arrangements  to 
use  his  boat  for  a school  picnic. 

2.  Write  to  John  S.  Egremont,  a noted  lecturer,  asking  him 
on  what  terms  he  would  speak  in  your  town  for  the  benefit  of 
the  High  School. 

3.  Write  to  the  Secretary  of  Yale  College,  asking  him  to  send 
you  an  announcement  of  the  requirements  for  admission. 

4.  John  L.  Anderson,  of  your  city,  contemplates  buying  a small 
house  in  the  country  for  the  use  of  his  family  in  the  summer.  He 
advertises  for  such  a house,  stating  his  requirements.  The  house 
must  be  within  three  miles  of  a railroad  station. 

Answer  the  advertisement,  describing  the  house  you  have  for 
sale. 

Assume  that  you  are  a dealer  in  real  estate.  Answer  the 
advertisement,  asking  further  questions  and  offering  to  assist 
Mr.  Anderson  in  finding  a house. 

Write  Mr.  Anderson’s  reply  to  the  first  letter. 

Write  Mr.  Anderson’s  reply  to  the  second  letter. 

5.  You  wish  to  become  a bookkeeper.  Write  to  a friend  who 
has  had  long  experience,  and  ask  his  advice  as  to  your  course  of 
study  and  the  best  method  of  preparing  for  your  work. 

6.  Write  to  the  publishers  of  ‘‘  Harper’s  Magazine,”  asking 
them  to  send  the  magazine  to  your  school  for  use  in  the  reading 
room.  Enclose  a check  or  a money  order  in  payment. 

7.  Write  to  the  principal  of  some  high  school  in  your  state, 
proposing  a debate  between  his  school  and  your  own.  Suggest 
the  conditions  under  which  the  debate  should  be  conducted  ; name 
two  or  three  subjects,  and  invite  further  correspondence. 

8.  Write  to  a stationer,  asking  him  to  send  you  samples  of 
stationery. 


BUSINESS  LETTERS. 


91 


9.  After  exaiiiiiiing  the  samples  sent  in  response  to  your 
request  (in  No.  8),  write  a letter  enclosing  the  paper  which  you 
have  selected,  and  ordering  the  amount  you  need.  Arrange  for 
payment. 

10.  You  intend  to  visit  a friend  in  Chicago.  Write  to  the 
local  passenger  agent,  asking  for  the  necessary  time-tables,  and 
making  inquiries  concerning  the  price  of  railway  tickets  and  of  a 
berth  in  a sleeping  car. 

11.  A gentleman  whom  you  know  wishes  to  buy  a dog.  Write 
to  him,  offering  to  sell  him  your  dog.  Describe  the  dog’s  charac- 
teristics. 

12.  Your  friend  Henry  Fairbanks  wishes  to  sell  his  boat.  Four 
members  of  your  class  wish  to  buy  it  together.  Write  to  the 
owner  of  the  boat,  making  inquiries  as  to  its  condition  and  value, 
and  asking  on  what  terms  your  club  can  obtain  it. 

13.  Your  class  plans  a picnic  in  the  country.  Write  to  the 
manager  of  the  electric  road  in  your  town,  arranging  for  a special 
car  to  convey  the  party  to  the  picnic  grounds  and  back. 

Write  a reply  to  your  first  letter,  to  complete  the  correspondence. 

14.  You  are  interested  by  the  announcement  of  a particular 
college.  Write  to  the  president  or  secretary,  asking  for  informa- 
tion concerning  the  college.  State  definitely  the  questions  which 
you  wish  to  have  answered. 

15.  Write  to  the  congressman  of  your  district,  asking  him  to 
tell  you  how  you  can  become  eligible  for  examination  for  AVest 
Point. 

16.  AYrite  to  the  proprietor  of  a summer  hotel  at  Atlantic  City 
for  a descriptive  circular  giving  full  information  about  the  hotel 
and  its  environment. 

17.  You  wish  to  buy  a piano.  Write  to  the  proprietors  of  the 
salesrooms  in  your  town,  asking  for  descriptions  of  the  best 
pianos,  with  prices. 

18.  AYrite  to  the  mayor  of  your  city  or  the  selectmen  of  your 
town,  stating  that  the  boys  and  girls  of  your  school  desire  a play- 
ground, and  asking  what  steps  can  be  taken  to  secure  it. 


92 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  84. 

INVITATIONS  AND  REPLIES. 

Invitations  and  replies  are  either  formal  or  informal. 
The  reply  should  accord  in  style  with  the  invitation. 

An  informal  invitation  is  written  like  any  other 
familiar  letter,  except  that  the  heading  is  often  less 
exact  in  designating  the  date  and  place.  Sometimes 
the  heading  is  omitted  altogether. 

A formal  invitation  is  always  in  the  third  person.  It 
has  no  heading,  no  salutation,  and  no  ‘‘Yours  truly” 
(or  the  like)  at  the  end.  It  is  also  unsigned,  for  the 
writer’s  name  appears  in  the  body  of  the  invitation. 

In  both  formal  and  informal  invitations  the  address 
of  the  sender  and  the  date  may  be  written  below  and  at 
the  left.  The  day  of  the  month  is  often  written  out  in 
full,  and  the  year  may  be  omitted. 

A formal  invitation’  may  be  arranged  in  lines ' of 
different  lengths,  as  in  the  example.  This  is  always  the 
practice  when  it  is  engraved. 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Egbert 
request  the  pleasure  of 
Mr.  Johnston’s 
company  at  dinner 
on  Wednesday,  January  fourteenth, 
at  seven  o’clock. 

43  Grantham  Street. 

A formal  reply  is  also  in  the  tliird  person,  and  fol- 
lows the  style  of  the  invitation  in  other  respects.  It 
need  not,  however,  be  “ displayed  ” like  an  engraved 
invitation. 


IXVITATIOXS  AND  REPLIES. 


93 


A reply,  whether  formal  or  informal,  should  always 
repeat  the  date  and  hour  mentioned  in  the  invitation, 
to  prevent  mistake.'  It  should  in  every  case  be  sent  at 
once,  that  the  host  or  hostess  may  know  how  many 
guests  to  expect. 


SECTION  85. 

INVITATIONS  AND  REPLIES. 

Copy  the  following  letters  and  observe  the  parts  of 
which  they  are  composed. 

[A  formal  invitation.] 

Mrs.  John  T.  Lawrence  requests  the  pleasure  of  Miss  Ainslee’s 
company  at  dinner  on  Wednesday,  February  twenty-seventh,  at 
seven  o’clock. 

239  Main  Street. 

[A  formal  reply,  accepting.] 

Miss  Ainslee  accepts  with  pleasure  Mrs.  Lawrence’s  kind  invi- 
tation for  AVednesday  evening,  February  twenty-seventh,  at  seven 
o’clock. 

13  Chestnut  Terrace, 

February  twenty-fourth. 

[A  formal  reply,  declining.] 

INIiss  Ainslee  regretsAhat  a previous  engagement  prevents  her 
accepting  Mrs.  Lawrence’s  kind  invitation  for  ^VTdnesday  evening. 

13  Cliestnut  Terrace, 

February  twenty-fourth. 


94 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


[Informal  invitations  and  replies.] 

5 Clifton  Road, 

Thursday  morning. 

Dear  Miss  Adams, 

May  I have  the  pleasure  of  taking  you  and  your  sister  to  drive 
in  the  Park  this  afternoon  ? The  day  is  a beautiful  one,  and  I 
do  not  like  to  have  you  return  to  the  West  without  seeing  the 
prettiest  thing  our  town  has  to  show. 

If  it  is  convenient  for  you,  I will  call  at  three  o’clock.  The 
bearer  will  wait  for  your  reply. 

Most  cordially  yours, 

Charlotte  L.  Fanshaw. 

My  dear  Mrs.  Richards, 

Will  you  and  Mr.  Richards  give  us  the  pleasure  of  your  com- 
pany at  dinner  on  Friday,  August  tenth,  at  seven  o’clock? 

Sincerely  yours, 

9 Hilton  Place,  Mary  Sanderson. 

August  third. 

My  dear  Mrs.  Sanderson, 

It  will  give  us  great  pleasure  to  dine  with  you  on  Friday,  the 
tenth,  at  seven  o’clock. 

Sincerely  yours, 

Helen  Richards. 

10  Alton  Street, 

August  fourth. 

My  dear  Mrs.  Sanderson, 

I am  very  sorry  that  a previous  engagement  will  deprive  us 
of  the  pleasure  of  dining  with  you  on  Friday. 

Sincerely  yourS, 

Helen  Richards. 

10  Alton  Street, 

August  fourth. 


BUSINESS  TRANSACTIONS. 


95 


SECTION  86. 

BUSINESS  TRANSACTIONS. 

A business  transaction  may  require  much  correspond- 
ence before  its  details  are  settled.  There  are  usually 
preliminary  inquiries,  definite  propositions,  an  agree- 
ment, and  the  performance  of  the  agreement.  All  these 
‘‘  items  ” require  letter-writing. 


I. 

Mr.  John  T.  King  desires  to  send  his  twelve-year-old  son  to  a 
summer  camp  for  boys.  lie  corresponds  with  Mr.  Elmer  E.  Ells- 
worth, 25  Cudworth  St.,  Albany,  New  York,  in  regard  to  the 
matter.  AYrite  the  necessary  letters. 

1.  Mr.  King  makes  preliminary  inquiries. 

2.  Mr.  Ellsworth  replies,  sending  a circular  and  answering 
Mr.  King’s  questions.  He  asks  for  a description  of  the  boy,  and 
a definite  statement  of  the  father’s  purpose  in  sending  him  to  the 
camp. 

3.  Mr.  King  replies,  and  makes  inquiries  as  to  the  acquaint- 
ances his  son  may  make  in  camp. 

4.  Mr.  Ellsworth  replies. 

5.  Mr.  King  engages  a place  for  his  boy. 

6.  Bill  rendered  by  Mr.  Ellsworth  at  the  end  of  the  session. i 

7.  Check  sent  by  Mr.  King  in  payment  of  Mr.  Ellsworth’s  bill. 

8.  Letter  from  Mr.  King  to  Mr.  Ellsworth,  expressing  his 
appreciation  of  the  treatment  his  boy  has  received,  and  his 
cordial  approval  of  the  camp. 


II. 

Mr.  John  Smith  is  the  teacher  of  history  in  the  Oakview 
School.  There  are  eighteen  pupils  in  his  class  and  he  wishes  to 

1 For  bills  and  other  business  forms,  see  Appendix. 


96 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


secure  for  them  copies  of  Green’s  “ Short  History  of  the  English 
People.”  It  is  necessary  for  him  to  learn  the  cost  of  the  books; 
whether  a discount  will  be  allowed  to  his  class  ; how  and  when 
the  books  can  be  delivered. 

1.  Write  a letter,  asking  the  publishers  to  send  a sample  copy 
of  the  book  to  show  to  the  class. 

2.  Write  the  publishers’  reply  which  accompanies  the  book. 

3.  Write  the  order  for  eighteen  copies,  asking  to  have  the 
books  sent  by  express. 

4.  Prepare  the  bill  which  should  accompany  the  books. 

5.  Write  a letter,  announcing  the  safe  arrival  of  the  books  and 
enclosing  a check  in  payment. 


III. 

Your  school  needs  a baseball  field. 

1.  A real  estate  agent  writes  to  ask  you  whether  a given  field 
would  be  suitable  for  a baseball  field,  how  much  of  the  land  you 
need,  and  whether  the  boys  in  your  school  would  raise  a sub- 
scription to  buy  the  field.  Write  the  agent’s  letter. 

2.  Reply,  answering  these  questions.  Explain  to  the  agent 
that  there  is  another  field  nearer  the  school  which  would  be  better 
for  the  purpose. 


IV. 

JDIANOS  TO  LET. — We  have  always  on  hand 
a new  and  fine  stock  of  pianos  to  let  at  rea- 
sonable prices.  Any  one  who  wishes  to  hire  a piano 
will  do  well  to  call  and  examine  our  stock.  SMITH 
& EMERSON  COMPANY,  1006  Main  St. 

Your  class  is  arranging  for  a concert  in  the  school  hall  and 
needs  a piano  for  the  occasion.  You  have  noticed  the  advertise- 
ment of  the  Smith  & Emerson  Company  (printed  above). 
Conduct  the  necessary  correspondence. 


BUSINESS  TRANSACTIONS. 


97 


1.  Write  to  the  firm  asking  them  on  what  terms  they  would 
send  you  a piano.  Tell  what  kind  of  piano  you  desire  and  when 
it  will  be  required. 

2.  AVrite  the  firm’s  reply  to  your  letter.  Describe  the  piano 
which  can  be  sent  and  mention  the  cost  of  cartage  and  rental. 

3.  AAT’ite  to  engage  the  piano.  Stipulate  the  hour  at  which  it 
must  arrive  ; say  that  a member  of  your  committee  will  be  at  the 
schoolhouse  at  that  hour,  to  see  that  it  is  put  in  the  proper  place. 
Agree  to  the  terms  stated  in  the  firm’s  letter.  (Quote  them.) 

4.  AAT’ite  to  the  firm,  asking  them  to  remove  the  piano  and  to 
send  their  bill. 

5.  Reply  to  No.  4,  offering  a slight  reduction  in  the  amount 
agreed  on.  Make  out  the  bill. 

6.  Send  a post-office  order  in  payment.  Thank  the  firm  for 
the  reduction,  and  speak  of  the  careful  way  in  which  the  men  who 
moved  the  piano  did  their  work. 


V. 

500  STORAGE  ROOMS  in  the  city, 

$1.50  to  $6.00  per  month,  at  Union  Storage 
Warehouse,  74  Eastern  Avenue.  Down-town  office, 

75  Berkeley  St.  Estimates  for  moving  and  storage. 

Y oil  are  about  to  move  from  the  city  to  a town  twenty  miles 
distant. 

1.  Briefly  describe  the  material  to  be  moved,  state  when  the 
work  must  be  done,  and  ask  for  an  estimate  of  the  expense. 

2.  Write  a reply  to  the  letter  just  outlined. 

3.  Reply  to  the  letter  received  from  the  Union  Storage  AYare- 
house.  Engage  the  company  to  move  your  goods  on  the  date 
mentioned. 

4.  Make  out  a bill  for  the  service. 

5.  Acknowledge  the  receipt  of  the  bill.  Inform  the  company 
that,  though  most  of  the  work  was  well  done,  one  valuable  piece 
of  furniture  was  seriously  damaged  in  the  transfer.  Ask  foi-  an 
inquiry  into  the  matter. 


98 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


6.  Reply  to  the  letter  in  No.  5,  saying  that  the  company  has 
inquired  into  the  matter  and  has  discovered  that  the  accident 
was  caused  by  the  driver’s  carelessness.  Express  regret  for  the 
accident,  and  make  a reduction  in  the  bill  as  compensation. 

7.  Reply  to  the  last  letter,  acknowledging  the  reduction  and 
enclosing  a check  in  payment  of  the  bill  as  it  now  reads. 


VI. 

PASSAGE  TICKETS  to  and  from  EUROPE  via 
Allan,  American,  Anchor,  Cunard,  Dominion, 

White  Star,  and  Scandinavian-American  Lines.  All 
lines  of  rail  and  ocean  travel  represented.  Tickets 
to  and  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  T.  L.  SMITH 
& CO.,  45  Elliot  St.  Telephone,  Main  656. 

1.  Write  to  the  firm,  asking  for  descriptive  circulars.  Mention 
the  paper  in  which  you  first  saw  the  advertisement. 

2.  Write  the  reply  of  T.  L.  Smith  & Co. 

3.  After  examining  the  circulars,  you  decide  to  secure  passage 
for  a party  of  six  by  the  Dominion  Line.  Write,  asking  for  a 
plan  of  the  ships  of  this  line,  with  dates  of  sailing  and  definite 
terms. 

4.  Write  T.  L.  Smith  & Co.’s  reply  to  the  inquiries  in  No.  3. 
Remark  that  a plan  is  enclosed. 

5.  Write  to  engage  passage  for  your  party  on  a certain  ship  at 
a certain  date.  Indicate  selected  staterooms  in  order  of  choice, 
and  enclose  check  for  the  preliminary  deposit  required. 

6.  The  ship  which  you  have  selected  is  disabled.  The  com- 
pany substitutes  another  and  sends  a printed  letter  to  all  persons 
who  have  taken  passage.  Write  the  letter. 

7.  Write  a letter  to  the  company,  asking  if  it  is  possible  to 
exchange  your  tickets,  in  order  to  secure  passage  in  one  of  the 
ships  sailing  either  earlier  or  later. 

8.  Write  a reply  to  No.  7,  arranging  for  the  exchange. 

9.  W rite  to  the  company,  closing  the  transaction. 


TELEGRAMS. 


99 


VIL 


TTr  ANTED.  — A bright  high-school  boy  for  office 
^ ^ work  and  errands,  about  16  years  old, 
home  in  the  city ; wages  $4.00 ; some  leisure  for 
study.  Apply,  with  references,  rear  of  1257  Union 
Avenue,  Jamaica  Crossing.  ALLEN  PRINTING 
COMPANY. 


Write  a letter  applying  for  the  position,  describing  your  prepa- 
ration, and  stating  that  you  are  engaged  to-day  but  will  call  at 
four  o’clock  to-morrow. 


VIII. 

OTEAM  CARPET  CLEANING  3 cents  a yard. 

^ Carpets  laid,  3 cents  a yard.  Tel.  305-2.  THE 
N.  J.  EVANS  COMPANY,  Norfolk,  cor.  Castle  St. 

1.  Write  to  the  company,  asking  them  to  send  for  your  carpet, 
which  is  to  be  cleaned,  repaired,  and  laid. 

2.  Write  a reply  to  No.  1. 

3.  Make  out  a bill  for  the  work. 

4.  Write  a letter  enclosing  a check  in  payment,  and  saying  that 
the  work  has  been  well  and  promptly  done. 


SECTION  87. 

TELEGRAMS. 

Messages  requiring  haste  are  frequently  sent  by  tele- 
graph, especially  by  business  men.  The  composition  of 
telegrams  is,  therefore,  an  essential  part  of  a business 
training. 

A telegram  should  be  brief  and  definite.  The  cost 
of  the  telegram  is  proportioned  to  the  distance.  Ten 
words  are  allowed  for  a given  rate,  and  every  additional 
word  means  additional  cost.  It  is  therefore  necessary 


100 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


to  learn  how  to  limit  the  cost  of  the  telegram  by 
writing  as  concisely  as  possible. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — Practice  in  writing  telegrams  is  valuable  in  devel- 
oping power  of  discrimination  as  well  as  conciseness.  Pupils  should  be 
taught  to  select  the  essential  points  of  a message  and  to  express  them  in 
the  most  telling  words  within  the  limit  allowed.  The  exercises  may  also 
be  used  as  subjects  for  letters,  and  the  pupil  may  be  required  to  condense 
each  letter  into  a telegram. 

1.  Your  friend  is  on  his  way  from  Chicago  to  New  York. 
He  intends  to  sail  for  Europe  next  Wednesday  and  telegraphs, 
asking  you  to  meet  him  in  New  York  Wednesday  morning. 
Write  the  telegram. 

Reply  with  a telegram,  explaining  why  you  cannot  meet  him. 
Send  regrets  and  best  wishes  for  a pleasant  voyage. 

Telegraph  to  your  cousin,  asking  him  to  meet  your  friend  in 
your  place. 

2.  You  have  been  spending  your  vacation  in  Nova  Scotia,  and 
take  passage  home  on  a steamship.  Write  a letter,  announcing 
your  intended  arrival,  naming  the  route  you  have  chosen,  and 
stating  the  time  of  your  expected  arrival. 

The  ship  is  delayed  in  port  by  a slight  accident.  Telegraph 
to  a member  of  your  family,  stating  the  cause  of  the  delay  and 
assuring  him  of  your  safety. 

3.  You  had  intended  to  be  present  at  the  opening  of  your 
school,  but  the  delay  in  sailing  (see  No.  2)  makes  you  late. 
Telegraph  to  the  principal,  explaining  the  delay  and  telling  him 
when  you  expect  to  arrive. 

4.  You  are  spending  your  vacation  with  a friend  in  the 
country.  Telegraph  home,  asking  your  mother  to  send  you 
some  book  by  the  next  mail. 

5.  Your  father,  who  is  away  from  home,  discovers  that  he  has 
left  on  his  desk  an  important  letter  which  he  needs  in  order  to 
transact  certain  business.  He  telegraphs,  asking  you  to  forward 
the  letter  immediately.  Write  the  telegram. 

You  find  the  letter  and  forward  it  by  mail.  Write  a telegram 
to  reassure  your  father. 


ANNOUNCEMENTS. 


101 


6.  Telegraph  to  a friend  in  a neighboring  city,  asking  him 
to  secure  two  tickets  for  the  symphony  concert. 

7.  You  are  at  school  a hundred  miles  from  home.  You  are 
chosen  valedictorian  of  your  class.  Telegraph  the  news  to  your 
mother. 

Write  her  letter  in  reply  to  the  telegram. 

8.  One  of  your  friends  has  a camp  on  the  shore  of  a lake  in 
the  country.  He  has  commissioned  you  to  buy  a boat  for  him. 
You  have  ascertained  that  a suitable  boat  may  be  bought  for 
fifty  dollars,  and  that  one  which  seems  to  you  much  better  may 
be  secured  for  sixty-five  dollars.  You  write  the  details  to  your 
friend,  asking  him  to  reply  immediately.  He  telegraphs,  author- 
izing you  to  buy  the  better  boat  and  asking  you  to  reply  by  tele- 
graph. Write  your  friend’s  telegram. 

AYrite  your  telegram  in  reply. 

9.  A noted  lecturer  is  to  address  your  school  next  Monday 
morning.  Telegraph  to  your  cousin,  asking  her  to  be  present. 

10.  A very  dear  friend  has  been  elected  to  a position  of  great 
honor  and  trust.  Telegraph  your  congratulations. 

11.  A reunion  of  your  classmates  occurs  this  evening.  You 
are  unable  to  attend  but  wish  to  express  your  interest.  Send  a 
telegram  to  be  read  at  the  reunion. 


SECTION  88. 

ANNOUNCEMENTS. 

One  is  frequently  called  upon  to  write  a formal 
announcement  (of  a meeting  or  an  entertainment,  for 
example)  to  be  published  in  a newspaper  or  sent  out 
as  a circular  letter. 

Announcements  should  be  clear  and  concise.  They 
should  contain  nothing  that  is  not  to  the  point,  and 
should  be  written  in  a simple,  dignified  style. 


102 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


1.  Read  the  following  announcement. 

American  Bridge-Building  Company.  To  the  stockholders. 
A special  meeting  of  the  stockholders  of  the  American  Bridge- 
Building  Company  will  be  held  on  Tuesday,  the  25th  day  of 
March,  1902,  at  11.30  a.m.,  at  the  office  of  the  Company, 
27  East  St.,  Northborough,  to  consider  and  act  upon  the  question 
of  increasing  the  number  of  the  directors. 

By  order  of  the  Directors. 

Chas.  Elmer  Hubbard,  Secretary. 

Northborough,  N.  Y.,  March  8,  1902. 

Study  this  announcement  and  explain  its  purpose. 

Enumerate  the  items  that  it  contains. 

Make  an  outline  of  the  announcement  as  a guide  for  use  in 
such  compositions. 

Compose  a similar  announcement,  referring  to  your  outline. 

Exchange  papers  in  the  class  and  criticise.  Insist  upon  brief 
and  clear  statements.  Be  sure  that  no  necessary  item  is  omitted 
from  the  announcement  and  that  no  unnecessary  item  is  included 
in  it. 

2.  Call  a meeting  of  some  club  of  which  you  are  a member. 
Announce  the  purpose,  the  time,  and  the  place  of  meeting,  and 
invite  a full  attendance.  This  announcement  is  to  be  posted  on 
the  bulletin  board  of  your  school. 

3.  The  baseball  nine  of  your  school  is  to  play  with  the  nine 
of  the  Chester  High  School,  on  April  14,  in  the  afternoon,  on 
your  school  playground.  Write  an  announcement  of  the  game 
for  some  local  newspaper,  inviting  spectators. 

4.  Your  class  contemplates  giving  a school  entertainment,  in 
the  hope  of  securing  money  for  a new  piano.  Write  an  announce- 
ment of  the  entertainment,  mentioning  its  purpose,  and  stating 
time,  place,  and  price  of  admission. 

5.  Prepare  a suitable  programme  for  the  entertainment  men- 
tioned in  Exercise  4, 


ADVEKTISEMENTS. 


103 


6.  Write  a report  of  this  entertainment  for  some  local  news- 
paper. 

7.  The  alumni  of  your  high  school  are  to  have  a picnic  on 
Saturday,  June  18,  at  some  well-known  picnic  grounds.  Write  an 
announcement  for  a newspaper,  stating  the  time  and  place  of  the 
picnic. 

Write  a note  to  a friend,  outlining  the  plans  made  for  the 
picnic  and  asking  him  to  attend. 

Write  a letter  to  the  company  owning  the  picnic  grounds 
arranging  for  the  use  of  the  grounds. 

Write  a report  of  the  picnic  for  your  school  paper. 

8.  A new  high-school  building  has  just  been  erected  in  your 
town.  You  desire  to  secure  a clock  for  the  hall,  and  therefore 
send  a circular  letter  to  graduates  of  the  school,  asking  for  con- 
tributions. Write  the  letter. 


SECTION  89. 

ADVERTISEMENTS. 

Ordinary  advertisements  are  written  as  concisely  as  pos- 
sible, for  newspapers  charge  by  the  line  or  the  inch  for 
their  insertion.  They  should  be  perfectly  clear,  how- 
ever, even  at  the  expense  of  an  additional  line  or  two. 
It  is  poor  economy  to  save  a few  cents  and  defeat  the 
whole  purpose  of  advertising. 

Study  the  advertisements  in  Section  86  before  taking 
up  the  exercises  below. 

1.  Answer  the  following  advertisement. 

T3RUSH  HILL.  — To  be  let  for  the  summer,  a 
most  attractive  estate  of  about  5 acres,  on 
Trowbridge  St.  Fully  furnished  house  of  12  rooms 
and  2 bathrooms,  large  veranda,  and  stable  for 
4 horses.  Apply  to  L.  K.  Turner,  70  Union  St. 


104 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


2.  rr^O  LET.  — Large  old-fashioned  house;  modern 

plumbing ; paint,  paper,  and  everything  new  ; 

15  rooms;  will  be  let  for  $800,  to  private  family 
only.  J.  F.  F.  Brigham,  42  King  St.  Tel.  2907. 

Study  this  advertisement.  Enumerate  the  items  included  in  it; 
then  write  a descriptive  paragraph  making  the  same  announcement. 

3.  You  live  in  a northern  city.  Your  parents  plan  to  spend 
the  winter  in  the  South,  and  you  are  to  stay  with  your  sister 
until  they  return.  Meanwhile,  your  house  will  be  let,  furnished. 
Write  a descriptive  advertisement  ottering  it  for  rent. 

4.  A young  lady  has  lost  a beautiful  brooch  which  had  been 
given  to  her  by  a friend.  Write  an  advertisement  describing  the 
lost  article,  telling  when  and  where  it  was  lost,  and  ottering  a 
reward  for  its  return. 

5.  A Scotch  collie  has  disappeared.  His  owner  fears  that  the 
dog  has  been  stolen.  Write  a description  of  the  dog  for  publi- 
cation, telling  the  time  of  his  disappearance  and  ottering  a reward 
for  his  return. 

6.  Mr.  Elbert  Brown  wishes  to  employ  a boy  who  can  make 
himself  generally  useful.  The  boy  must  be  at  least  sixteen  years 
old,  accustomed  to  country  life,  and  ready  to  live  out  of  town 
for  the  summer.  Write  an  advertisement,  describing  the  work 
required,  ottering  suitable  compensation,  and  appointing  a time 
for  an  interview. 

7.  A gentleman  wishes  to  build  a summer  cottage  near  a lake 
in  the  woods  twenty  miles  from  town.  He  advertises  for  a car- 
penter. Write  the  advertisement. 

Answer  the  advertisement,  stating  the  terms  on  which  you 
will  undertake  the  work. 


Part  II. 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE. 


Part  IT. 


THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE. 


SECTION  90. 

TWO  KINDS  OF  COMPOSITION. 

Most  of  the  writing  which  we  have  to  do  falls  into 
two  classes,  of  which  the  two  kinds  of  letters  already 
studied  are  the  commonest  typesd 

In  a business  letter  your  purpose  is  to  give  informa- 
tion, to  explain  a subject  with  which  you  are  familiar  to 
some  one  who  does  not  understand  it,  or  to  express  your 
opinion  on  some  practical  matter.  Such  a letter  may 
be  quite  impersonal.  Its  essential  quality  is  clearness. 

In  a familiar  letter,  on  the  other  hand,  you  are  con- 
cerned with  your  own  thoughts,  feelings,  and  experi- 
ences. Your  object  is  not  primarily  to  give  information, 
but  rather  to  make  your  subject  as  interesting  to  your 
correspondent  as  it  is  to  you.  Such  a letter  is  personal 
and  individual.  Its  essential  qualities  are  vividness  and 
interest.^ 

These  two  classes  of  letters  are  examples  of  the  two 

1 See  pp.  85-86,  91,  94. 

2 These  paragraphs  are  not  pieant  as  definitions.  Many  business  letters 
are  personal,  and  a familiar  letter  may  of  course  concern  a matter  of  busi- 
ness. No  sharp  distinction  can  be  made  between  the  two  kinds  of  corre- 
spondence. The  general  difference,  however,  is  as  here  set  forth,  and 
nothing  more  is  necessary  for  our  present  purpose,  which  is  illustrative 
merely. 


108 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


kinds  of  writing  which  everybody  has  to  do,  sooner  or 
later.  In  the  first  kind,  you  should  ask  yourself, 
^^Have  I explained  all  the  facts  clearly?”  In  the 
second,  ‘‘  Have  I interested  my  reader  in  what  interests 
me?”  Under  the  first  head  come  such  pieces  of  com- 
position as  your  written  tests  ” at  school,  and  all  those 
essa;ys  or  reports  in  which  your  main  object  is  to  inform 
your  reader.  Under  the  second  head  comes  every  piece 
of  composition  in  which  you  aim  chiefly  at  interesting 
others  in  your  own  feelings  or  experiences,  as  in  stories 
or  in  descriptions  of  places  or  persons.  In  literature, 
the  first  class  would  include  scientific  works,  many 
essays  on  instructive  topics,  speeches  on  matters  of  fact 
(as  in  debates),  and  all  books  which  set  forth  general 
principles  for  the  conduct  of  life  or  for  the  under- 
standing of  the  universe.  In  the  second  class  belong 
stories,  literary  descriptions,  all  poetry  that  appeals  to 
the  imagination,  and  what  we  call  ‘‘  lighter  literature.” 

To  THE  Teacher.  — This  distinction  between  the  two  general  classes 
of  writing  is  of  some  importance.  Pupils  should  be  taught  to  think  before 
they  write  whether  their  chief  aim  is  to  explain  or  to  arouse  interest,  and 
they  should  arrange  and  handle  their  material  according  to  this  main 
purpose.  On  the  other  hand,  they  should  not  infer  that  every  composition 
is  confined  to  one  or  the  other  class.  They  should  observe  that  in  many 
cases  the  purposes  may  be  combined.  In  particular,  they  should  remember 
that  to  be  instructive  one  is  not  obliged  to  be  dull. 


SECTION  91. 

1.  Name  three  examples  of  writing  whose  chief  purpose  is  to 
explain,  and  three  whose  chief  purpose  is  to  arouse  interest. 

2.  Mention  (1)  five  things  about  your  school  which  niiglit  go 
into  a business  letter  ; (2)  five  things  which  would  go  into  a 
family  letter  but  not  into  a business  letter. 


FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE. 


109 


SECTION  92. 

THE  FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE. 

All  literature,  as  we  have  seen,  may  be  roughly  but 
conveniently  divided  into  two  great  classes,  according 
as  its  main  object  is  (1)  to  instruct  the  reader  or  (2)  to 
interest  him.  This  is  a classification  with  respect  to 
the  purpose  of  the  author.  It  is  important  to  keep 
the  distinction  in  mind,  since  a writer  cannot  accom- 
plish much  unless  he  knows  what  he  wishes  to  do. 
Literature,  however,  may  be  regarded  from  another 
point  of  view.  We  may  ask  ourselves  not  only  What 
is  the  author’s  purpose  in  this  or  that  piece  of  writing?  ” 
but  “ What  is  the  form  of  his  literary  product  ? Is  it  a 
story,  or  a description,  or  an  explanation,  or  an  argu- 
ment ? ” With  regard  to  form,  then,  we  may  distinguish 
four  kinds  of  composition:  narrative,  descriptive,  explana- 
tory (or  expository),  and  argumentative. 

In  the  end  we  shall  find  that  these  four  classes 
seldom  occur  entirely  distinct  from  each  other.  In  the 
meantime,  however,  just  as  in  learning  any  game  we 
must  master  the  principles  and  movements  one  by  one, 
so  here  it  will  be  profitable  to  take  up  each  kind  of 
writing  by  itself,  in  order  to  discover  the  principles 
which  should  guide  us  in  the  practical  work  of  com- 
position and  to  grasp  them  firmly. 

In  Part  I,  we  have  surveyed  the  whole  subject  of 
composition  in  an  elementary  way.  In  Part  II,  we 
shall  take  up  the  several  forms  of  discourse  in  their  order. 
At  the  outset,  however,  we  must  consider  two  points 
which  are  equally  important  for  every  kind  of  writing. 


110 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  93. 

CLEARNESS  OF  THOUGHT. 

Before  you  begin  any  piece  of  composition,  you  should 
know  exactly  what  you  wish  to  say.  More  bad  writing 
springs  from  inexact  thinking  than  from  any  other  source. 

Every  one  understands  what  it  is  to  have  a comfortable 
sense  of  familiarity  with  a subject,  and  then,  when  he 
tries  to  speak  or  write,  to  find  that  he  can  give  no  satis- 
factory account  of  his  knowledge.  This  means  that  his 
supposed  familiarity  was  merely  a vague  acquaintance 
with  the  subject,  not  a well-ordered  body  of  informa- 
tion. Read  Newman’s  ‘‘Definition  of  a Gentleman” 
(pp.  355-56),  and  see  how  clearly  and  definitely  he 
must  have  thought  out  his  ideas  on  this  uncertain  topic 
before  he  began  to  write.  You  may  learn  the  same 
lesson  from  Washington’s  “Farewell  Address.”  Here 
again,  large  and  elusive  matters  are  discussed  with  a 
firmness  and  a precision  that  come  only  from  exact  and 
orderly  thinking. 

Before  you  begin  to  write,  therefore,  be  sure  that  you  know 
what  you  wish  to  do,  that  you  know  something  about  your 
subject,  and  that  your  ideas  about  it  are  clear  and  well  arranged. 

SECTION  94. 

ADAPTATION  TO  THE  READER. 

There  is  still  another  question  which  a writer  should 
ask  himself  before  he  begins  : “ For  whom  am  I writing  ? ” 
or  “ To  whom  is  my  composition  addressed  ? ” 


NARKATION. 


Ill 


If  you  are  to  write  of  baseball  to  one  who  already  knows  how 
to  play  the  game,  you  will  of  course  not  take  the  trouble  to 
describe  the  bat  and  the  ball,  or  to  explain  how  the  bases  are 
arranged.  You  will  come  at  once  to  some  question  of  skilful 
playing,  on  which  even  experts  may  have  diffc'erent  views.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  you  are  to  describe  the  game  to  an  English  boy, 
who  may  never  have  heard  of  it,  you  must  begin  at  the  beginning. 

In  every  case  you  should  consider  your  readers.  Make 
up  your  mind  what  they  are  likely  to  know  of  the  sub- 
ject already,  and  how  much  it  will  interest  them.  Then 
adapt  your  writing  to  their  needs  and  their  tastes. 

SECTION  95. 

NARRATION. 

In  Sections  96-98  are  printed  four  short  stories 
which  we  shall  use  in  our  study  of  this  particular  kind 
of  writing.  Rumpelstiltskin  ” is  an  example  of  the 
best  kind  of  fairy  tale,  — that  which  has  come  down 
to  us  by  a long  course  of  oral  tradition.  Moses  and 
the  Green  Spectacles  ” is  an  extract  from  Goldsmith’s 
“ Vicar  of  Wakefield,”  a novel  based  on  a simple,  retired 
mode  of  life.  “ Lochinvar”  is  a story  in  verse  ; it  is  full 
of  action  and  told  with  the  highest  spirit.  Sir  George 
Grey’s  ‘‘Australian  Superstition”  is  a true  story  taken 
from  an  excellent  book  of  travel  and  adventure. 

Read  each  story  twice,  — first  rapidl}^,  to  get  a 
general  impression  of  it,  then  more  deliberately,  but 
still  for  its  own  sake.  Later,  we  shall  find  that  each 
illustrates  certain  principles  that  will  be  useful  as 
guides  in  our  study  and  practice  of  composition. 


112 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


RUMPELSTILTSKIN. 

Once  there  was  a miller  who  was  poor,  but  who  had  a beauti- 
ful daughter.  Now  it  happened  that  he  had  to  go  and  speak  to 
the  king,  and,  in  order  to  make  himself  appear  important,  he 
said  to  him,  ‘‘  I have  a daughter  who  can  spin  straw  into  gold.’’ 
The  king  said  to  the  miller,  ‘‘  That  is  an  art  which  pleases  me 
well.  If  your  daughter  is  as  clever  as  you  say,  bring  her  to-morrow 
to  my  palace,  and  I will  try  what  she  can  do.” 

When  the  girl  was  brought  to  him,  he  took  her  into  a room 
which  was  quite  full  of  straw,  gave  her  a spinning-wheel  and  a 
reel,  and  said,  “ Now  set  to  work,  and  if  by  to-morrow  morning 
early  you  have  not  spun  this  straw  into  gold  during  the  night, 
you  must  die.”  Thereupon  he  himself  locked  up  the  room,  and 
left  her  in  it  alone.  So  there  sat  the  poor  miller’s  daughter,  and 
for  her  life  could  not  tell  what  to  do.  She  had  no  idea  how 
straw  could  be  spun  into  gold,  and  she  grew  more  and  more 
miserable,  until  at  last  she  began  to  weep. 

All  at  once  the  door  opened,  and  in  came  a little  man,  and 
said,  Good  evening.  Mistress  Miller.  Why  are  you  crying  so  ? ” 

Alas  ! ” answered  the  girl,  “ I have  to  spin  straw  into  gold, 
and  I do  not  know  how  to  do  it.” 

What  will  you  give  me,”  said  the  manikin,  “ if  I do  it  for 
you?” 

My  necklace,”  said  the  girl. 

The  little  man  took  the  necklace,  seated  himself  in  front  of  the 
wheel,  and  whirr,  whirr,  whirr  ! ” three  turns  and  the  reel  was 
full ; then  he  put  another  on,  and  “ whirr,  whirr,  whirr  ! ” three 
times  round,  and  the  second  w^as  full  too.  And  so  it  went  on 
until  the  morning,  when  all  the  straw  was  spun,  and  all  the  reels 
were  full  of  gold. 

By  daybreak  the  king  was  already  there,  and  when  he  saw  the 
gold  he  was  astonished  and  delighted,  but  his  heart  became  only 
more  greedy.  He  had  the  miller’s  daughter  taken  into  another 
room  full  of  straw,  which  was  much  larger,  and  commanded  her 


STOKIES. 


113 


to  spin  that  also  in  one  night  if  she  valued  her  life.  The  girl 
knew  not  how  to  help  herself,  and  was  crying,  when  the  door 
again  opened,  and  the  little  man  appeared,  and  said,  “ What  will 
you  give  me  if  I spin  the  straw  into  gold  for  you  ? ” 

The  ring  on  my  finger,”  answered  the  girl. 

The  little  man  took  the  ring,  again  began  to  turn  the  wheel, 
and  by  morning  had  spun  all  the  straw  into  glittering  gold. 

The  king  rejoiced  beyond  measure  at  the  sight,  but  still  he  had 
not  gold  enough ; and  he  had  the  miller’s  daughter  taken  into  a 
still  larger  room  full  of  straw,  and  said,  ‘‘You  must  spin  this,  too, 
in  the  course  of  this  night ; but  if  you  succeed,  you  shall  be  iny 
wife.” 

“ Even  if  she  be  a miller’s  daughter,”  thought  he,  “ I could  not 
find  a richer  wife  in  the  whole  world.” 

When  the  girl  was  alone,  the  manikin  came  again  for  the  third 
time,  and  said,  “ What  will  you  give  me  if  I spin  the  straw  for 
you  this  time  also  ? ” 

“ I have  nothing  left  that  I could  give,”  answered  the  girl. 

“ Then  promise  me,  if  you  should  become  queen,  your  first 
child.” 

“ Who  knows  whether  that  will  ever  happen  ? ” thought  the 
miller’s  daughter;  and,  not  knowing  how  else  to  help  herself  in 
this  strait,  she  promised  the  manikin  what  he  wanted,  and  for 
that  he  once  more  spun  the  straw  into  gold. 

When  the  king  came  in  the  morning,  and  found  all  as  he  had 
wished,  he  took  her  in  marriage,  and  the  miller’s  pretty  daughter 
became  a queen. 

A year  after,  she  had  a beautiful  child,  and  she  never  gave  a 
thought  to  the  manikin.  But  suddenly  he  came  into  her  room, 
and  said,  “ Yow  give  me  what  you  promised.”  The  queen  was 
horror-struck,  and  offered  the  manikin  all  the  riches  of  the  king- 
dom if  he  would  leave  her  the  child.  But  the  manikin  said, 
“ Yo,  something  that  is  living  is  dearer  to  me  than  all  the  treas- 
ures in  the  world.”  The  queen  began  to  weep  and  cry,  so  that 
the  manikin  pitied  her. 


114 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


‘‘  I will  give  you  three  days’  time,”  said  he.  ‘‘  If  by  that  time 
you  find  out  my  name,  then  shall  you  keep  your  child.” 

So  the  queen  thought  the  whole  night  of  all  the  names  that 
she  had  ever  heard,  and  she  sent  a messenger  over  the  country  to 
inquire,  far  and  wide,  for  any  other  names  that  there  might  be. 
When  the  manikin  came  the  next  day,  she  began  with  Caspar,” 
‘‘Melchior,”  “Balthazar,”  and  said  all  the  names  she  knew,  one 
after  another ; but  to  every  one  the  little  man  said,  “ That  is  not 
my  name.”  On  the  second  day  she  had  inquiries  made  in  the 
neighborhood  as  to  the  names  of  the  people  there,  and  she 
repeated  to  the  manikin  the  most  uncommon  and  curious.  “ Per- 
haps your  name  is  Shortribs,  or  Sheepshanks,  or  Laceleg?”  but 
he  always  answered,  “ That  is  not  my  name.” 

On  the  third  day  the  messenger  came  back  again,  and  said, 
“ I have  not  been  able  to  find  a single  new  name,  but  as  I came 
to  a high  mountain  at  the  end  of  the  forest,  where  the  fox  and 
the  hare  bid  each  other  good  night,  there  I saw  a little  house, 
and  before  the  house  a fire  was  burning,  and  round  about  the 
fire  quite  a ridiculous  little  man  was  jumping : he  hopped  upon 
one  leg,  and  shouted  — 

“‘To-day  I bake,  to-morrow  brew, 

The  next  ITl  have  the  young  queen’s  child. 

Ha!  glad  I am  that  no  one  knew 
That  Rumpelstiltskin  I am  styled.’  ” 

You  may  think  how  glad  the  queen  was  when  she  heard  the 
name ! And  when  soon  afterwards  the  little  man  came  in,  and 
asked,  “Now,  Mistress  Queen,  what  is  my  name?”  at  first  she 
said,  “Is  your  name  Conrad?”  “No.”  “Is  your  name 
Harry?”  “No.” 

“ Perhaps  your  name  is  Rumpelstiltskin  ? ” 

“ The  devil  has  told  you  that  1 the  devil  has  told  you  that  1 ” 
cried  the  little  man,  and  in  his  anger  he  plunged  his  right  foot  so 
deep  into  the  earth  that  his  whole  leg  went  in ; and  then  in  rage 
he  pulled  at  his  left  leg  so  hard  with  both  hands  that  he  tore 
himself  in  two.  — From  the  “ Fairy  Tales  ” of  the  Brothers  Grimm. 


STORIES. 


115 


SECTION  96. 

MOSES  AND  THE  GREEN  SPECTACLES. 

(From  Goldsmith’s  “ Vicar  of  Wakefield.”) 

As  the  fair  happened  on  the  following  day,  I had  intentions  of 
going  myself ; but  my  wife  persuaded  me  that  I had  got  a cold, 
and  nothing  could  prevail  upon  her  to  permit  me  from  home. 

No,  my  dear,”  said  she,  ‘‘our  son  Moses  is  a discreet  boy,  and 
can  buy  and  sell  to  very  good  advantage.  You  know  all  our 
great  bargains  are  of  his  purchasing.  He  always  stands  out  and 
higgles,  and  actually  tires  them  till  he  gets  a bargain.” 

As  I had  some  opinion  of  my  son’s  prudence,  I was  willing 
enough  to  intrust  him  with  this  commission  ; and  the  next  morn- 
ing I perceived  his  sisters  mighty  ^ busy  in  fitting  out  Moses  for 
the  fair,  — trimming  his  hair,  brushing  his  buckles,  and  cocking 
his  hat  with  pins.  The  business  of  the  toilet  being  over,  we  had 
at  last  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  him  mounted  upon  the  colt,  with 
a deal  box  before  him  to  bring  home  groceries  in.  ' He  had  on  a 
coat  made  of  that  cloth  they  call  thunder-and-lightning,  which, 
though  grown  too  short,  was  much  too  good  to  be  thrown  away. 
His  waistcoat  was  of  gosling  green,  and  his  sisters  had  tied  his 
hair  with  a broad  black  riband.  We  all  followed  him  several 
paces  from  the  door,  bawling  after  him,  “ Good  luck  ! good 
luck  ! ” till  we  could  see  him  no  longer. 

He  was  scarcely  gone  when  Mr.  Thornhill’s  butler  came  to  con- 
gratulate us  upon  our  good  fortune,  saying  that  he  overheard  his 
young  master  mention  our  names  with  great  commendation. 

Good  fortune  seemed  resolved  not  to  come  alone.  Another 
footman  from  the  same  family  followed,  with  a card  for  my 
daughters,  importing  that  the  two  ladies  liad  received  such  pleas- 
ing accounts  from  JMr.  Thornhill  of  us  all  that,  after  a few 
previous  inquiries,  they  hoped  to  be  perfectly  satisfied. 

1 This  adverbial  use  of  mighty  was  formerly  common  in  good  writers, 
but  is  now  obsolete  except  in  very  informal  conversation. 


116 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


« Ay ! ” cried  my  wife,  “ I now  see  it  is  no  easy  matter  to  get 
into  the  families  of  the  great ; but  when  one  once  gets  in,  then, 
as  Moses  says,  one  may  go  to  sleep. 

To  this  piece  of  humor  — for  she  intended  it  for  wit  — my 
daughters  assented  with  a loud  laugh  of  pleasure.  In  short,  such 
was  her  satisfaction  at  this  message  that  she  actually  put  her  hand 
in  her  pocket  and  gave  the  messenger  sevenpence  halfpenny. 

This  was  to  be  our  visiting  day.  The  next  that  came  w^as 
Mr.  Burchell,  who  had  been  at  the  fair.  He  brought  my  little 
ones  a pennyworth  of  gingerbread  each,  which  my  wife  undertook 
to  keep  for  them,  and  give  them  by  little  at  a time.  He  brought 
my  daughters  also  a couple  of  boxes,  in  which  they  might  keep 
wafers,  snuff,  patches,  or  even  money,  when  they  got  it.  My  wife 
was  unusually  fond  of  a weasel-skin  purse,  as  being  the  most  lucky ; 
but  this  by  the  by. 

At  last  I began  to  wonder  what  could  keep  our  son  so  long  at 
the  fair,  as  it  was  now  almost  nightfall. 

Never  mind  our  son  ! cried  my  wife.  “ Depend  upon  it  he 
knows  what  he  is  about.  I ’ll  warrant  we  shall  never  see  him  sell 
his  hen  of  a rainy  day.  I have  seen  him  buy  such  bargains  as 
would  amaze  one.  I ’ll  tell  you  a good  story  about  that,  that  will 
make  you  split  your  sides  with  laughing.  But,  as  I live,  yonder 
comes  Moses,  without  a horse,  and  the  box  at  his  back.” 

As  she  spoke,  Moses  came  slowly  on  foot,  and  sweating  under 
the  deal  box,  which  he  had  strapped  round  his  shoulders  like  a 
peddler. 

‘‘  Welcome,  welcome,  Moses  ! Well,  my  boy,  what  have  you 
brought  us  from  the  fair?” 

‘‘  I have  brought  you  myself,”  cried  Moses,  with  a sly  look,  and 
resting  the  box  on  the  dresser. 

“ Ay,  Moses  ! ” cried  my  wife,  “ that  we  know ; but  where  is 
the  horse  ? ” 

‘‘I  have  sold  him,”  cried  Moses,  ‘‘for  three  pounds,  five  shil- 
lings, and  twopence.” 


STORIES. 


117 


“ Well  done,  my  good  boy  ! returned  she.  ‘‘  I knew  you  would 
touch  them  off.  Between  ourselves,  three  pounds,  five  shillings, 
and  twopence  is  no  bad  day’s  work.  Come,  let  us  have  it,  then.” 

“ I have  brought  back  no  money,”  cried  Moses  again.  “ I have 
laid  it  all  out  on  a bargain,  and  here  it  is  ” — pidling  out  a bundle 
from  his  breast.  Here  they  are,  — a gross  of  green  spectacles, 
with  silver  rims  and  shagreen  cases.” 

‘‘  A gross  of  green  spectacles ! ” repeated  my  wife,  in  a faint 
voice.  And  you  have  parted  with  the  colt,  and  brought  us  back 
nothing  but  a gross  of  paltry  green  spectacles  ! ” 

Dear  mother,”  cried  the  boy,  why  won’t  you  listen  to  rea- 
son ? I had  them  a dead  bargain,  or  I should  not  have  bought 
them.  The  silver  rims  alone  will  sell  for  double  the  money.” 

“ A fig  for  the  silver  rims  ! ” cried  my  wife,  in  a passion.  ‘‘  I 
dare  swear  they  won’t  sell  for  above  half  the  money  at  the  rate  of 
broken  silver,  five  shillings  an  ounce.” 

“You  need  be  under  no  uneasiness,”  cried  I,  “about  selling 
the  rims,  for  they  are  not  worth  sixpence  ; for  I perceive  they  are 
only  copper  varnished  over.” 

“ What,”  cried  my  wife,  “ not  silver  ! — the  rims  not  silver  ! ” 

“ No,”  cried  I,  “ no  more  silver  than  your  saucepan.” 

“And  so,”  returned  she,  “we  have  parted  with  the  colt,  and 
have  only  got  a gross  of  green  spectacles,  with  copper  rims  and 
shagreen  cases.  A murrain  take  such  trumpery ! The  blockhead 
has  been  imposed  on,  and  should  have  known  his  company 
better.” 

“There,  my  dear,”  cried  T,  “you  are  wrong;  he  should  not 
have  known  them  at  all.” 

“ Marry,  hang  the  idiot ! ” returned  she,  “ to  bring  me  such 
stuff.  If  I had  them  I would  throw  them  into  the  fire.” 

“ There  again  you  are  wrong,  my  dear,”  cried  I ; “ for,  though 
they  be  copper,  we  will  keep  them  by  us,  as  copper  spectacles, 
you  know,  are  better  than  nothing.” 

By  this  time  the  unfortunate  Moses  was  undeceived.  He  now 
saw  that  he  had  indeed  been  imposed  upon  by  a prowling  sharper. 


118 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


who,  observing  his  figure,  had  marked  him  for  an  easy  prey.  I 
therefore  asked  the  circumstances  of  his  deception.  He  sold  the 
horse,  it  seems,  and  walked  the  fair  in  search  of  another.  A 
reverend-looking  man  brought  him  to  a tent,  under  pretence  of 
having  one  to  sell.  Here,”  continued  Moses,  ‘‘we  met  another 
man,  very  well  dressed,  who  desired  to  borrow  twenty  pounds 
upon  these,  saying  that  he  wanted  money  and  would  dispose  of 
them  for  a third  of  their  value.  The  first  gentleman,  who  pre- 
tended to  be  my  friend,  whispered  to  me  to  buy  them,  and 
cautioned  me  not  to  let  so  good  an  offer  pass.  I sent  for  Mr. 
Flamborough,  and  they  talked  him  up  as  finely  as  they  did  me, 
and  so  at  last  we  were  persuaded  to  buy  the  two  gross  between 
us.” 


SECTION  97. 

LOCHINVAR. 

By  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

O,  young  Lochinvar  is  come  out  of  the  west, 

Through  all  the  wide  border  his  steed  was  the  best ; 

And  save  his  good  broadsword  he  weapons  had  none. 

He  rode  all  unarmed,  and  he  rode  all  alone. 

So  faithful  in  love,  and  so  dauntless  in  war. 

There  never  was  knight  like  the  young  Lochinvar. 

He  stayed  not  for  brake,  and  he  stopped  not  for  stone. 
He  swam  the  Eske  river  where  ford  there  was  none ; 

But,  ere  he  alighted  at  Netherby  gate. 

The  bride  had  consented,  the  gallant  came  late : 

For  a laggard  in  love,  and  a dastard  in  war. 

Was  to  wed  the  fair  Ellen  of  brave  Lochinvar. 

So  boldly  he  entered  the  Netherby  hall. 

Among  bride’s-men,  and  kinsmen,  and  brothers,  and  all : 
Then  spoke  the  bride’s  father,  his  hand  on  his  sword. 


STOKIES. 


119 


For  the  poor  craven  bridegroom  said  never  a word, — 

“ O come  ye  in  peace  here,  or  come  ye  in  war. 

Or  to  dance  at  our  bridal,  young  Lord  Lochinvar  ? ” 

“ I long  woo’d  your  daughter,  my  suit  you  denied ; 

Love  swells  like  the  Solway,  but  ebbs  like  its  tide ; 

And  now  I am  come,  with  this  lost  love  of  mine, 

To  lead  but  one  measure,  drink  one  cup  of  wine. 

There  are  maidens  in  Scotland  more  lovely  by  far, 

Who  would  gladly  be  bride  to  the  young  Lochinvar.” 

The  bride  kissed  the  goblet : the  knight  took  it  up. 

He  quaffed  off  the  wine,  and  he  threw  down  the  cup. 

She  looked  down  to  blush,  and  she  looked  up  to  sigh, 

With  a smile  on  her  lips,  and  a tear  in  her  eye. 

He  took  her  soft  hand,  ere  her  mother  could  bar,  — 

‘‘  Now  tread  we  a measure ! ” said  young  Lochinvar. 

So  stately  his  form,  and  so  lovely  her  face. 

That  never  a hall  such  a galliard  did  grace ; 

While  her  mother  did  fret,  and  her  father  did  fume. 

And  the  bridegroom  stood  dangling  his  bonnet  and  plume. 

And  the  bride-maidens  whispered  ’ T were  better  by  far 
To  have  matched  our  fair  cousin  with  young  Lochinvar.” 

One  touch  to  her  hand,  and  one  word  in  her  ear. 

When  they  reached  the  hall  door  where  the  charger  stood  near ; 
So  light  to  the  croup  the  fair  lady  he  swung, 

So  light  to  the  saddle  before  her  he  sprung ! 

She  is  won ! we  are  gone,  over  bank,  bush,  and  scaur ; 

They  ’ll  have  fleet  steeds  that  follow,”  quoth  young  Lochinvar. 

There  was  mounting  ’mong  Graemes  of  the  Netherby  clan; 
Forsters,  Fenwicks,  and  Musgraves,  they  rode  and  they  ran ; 
There  was  racing  and  chasing  on  Cannobie  Lee, 

But  the  lost  bride  of  Netherby  ne’er  did  they  see. 

So  daring  in  love,  and  so  dauntless  in  war. 

Have  ye  e’er  heard  of  gallant  like  young  Lochinvar  ? 


120 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  98. 

AUSTRALIAN  SUPERSTITION. i 
By  Sir  George  Grey. 

The  men  slept  but  little  during  the  night ; every  now  and  then 
one  of  them  visited  the  hole  of  mud  and  water,  to  see  if  a little 
of  this  fluid  had  drained  into  it,  and  about  an  hour  before  day- 
light I roused  them  up  to  proceed  upon  their  journey.  They 
were  dreadfully  feeble,  though  upon  the  whole  stronger  than  they 
had  been  for  the  last  three  days.  We  now  entered  upon  a more 
hilly  country  than  we  had  traversed  yesterday;  the  hills  were 
steep,  being  composed  of  sand  and  recent  limestone,  whilst  the 
valleys  were  thickly  wooded  with  grass  trees  and  stunted  bank- 
sias.  The  general  line  of  route  I followed  was  south  by  east,  and 
we  had  not  travelled  more  than  nine  miles  when  we  came  sud- 
denly upon  a valley,  with  a river  running  rapidly  through  it. 
The  sight  of  this  cheered  us  up  ; and  when  on  tasting  the  water 
we  found  it  excellent,  and  saw  adhering  to  the  banks  a species  of 
fresh-water  mussel,  called  by  the  natives  ma-rayl-ya,  our  joy  was 
complete. 

I proceeded  therefore  to  collect  wood  for  my  fire,  and  ordered 
Kaiber  ^ to  make  haste  and  gather  some  of  these  mussels,  an  order 
which,  considering  the  hungry  state  he  was  in,  I imagined  he 
would  gladly  have  obeyed  ; but  to  my  astonishment  he  refused 
positively  to  touch  one  of  them,  and  evidently  regarded  them  with 
a superstitious  dread  and  abhorrence.  My  arguments  to  induce 
him  to  move  were  all  thrown  away.  He  constantly  affirmed  that 
if  he  touched  these  shell-fish,  through  their  agency  the  hoyl-yas  ^ 
would  acquire  some  mysterious  influence  over  him,  which  would 
end  in  his  death.  He  could  not  state  a recent  instance  of  any  ill 
effects  having  happened  from  handling  or  catching  the  mussels ; 

1 From  “ Travels  in  Northwest  and  Western  Australia.” 

2 A native  Australian  who  was  one  of  the  exploring  party  led  by  Grey. 

3 The  hoyl-ya  is  the  native  sorcerer. 


STOKIES. 


121 


but  when  I taunted  him  with  this,  he  very  shrewdly  replied,  that 
his  inability  to  do  so  only  arose  from  the  fact  of  nobody  being 
“ wooden-headed  enough  ” to  meddle  with  them,  and  that  he 
intended  to  have  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  them.  This  much 
he  assured  me  was  certain,  that  a very  long  time  ago  some  natives 
had  eaten  them,  and  that  bad  spirits  had  immediately  killed  them 
for  so  doing. 

Kaiber  was  a great  deal  too  sensible  a fellow  to  be  allowed  to 
remain  a prey  to  so  ridiculous  a superstition  as  this  was.  I there- 
fore ordered  him  instantly  to  go  and  bring  some  of  these  mussels 
to  me,  saying  that  I intended  to  eat  them,  but  that  he  could  in 
this  respect  please  himself.  He  hereupon,  after  thinking  for  a 
moment  or  tw^o,  got  up  to  obey  me,  and  walked  away  for  this 
purpose ; but  I heard  him,  whilst  occupied  in  the  task,  lamenting 
his  fate  most  bitterly.  It  was  true,  he  said,  that  he  had  not  died 
either  of  hunger  or  thirst,  but  this  was  all  owing  to  his  courage 
and  strong  sinews,  yet  what  would  these  avail  against  the  super- 
natural powers  of  the  hoyl-yas,  They  will  eat  me  at  night, 
whilst,  worn  out  by  fatigue,  I must  sleep.”  Amidst  these  and 
sundry  other  similar  exclamations,  he  brought  the  mussels  to  me. 
By  this  time  my  fire  was  prepared,  and  in  a few  minutes  I was 
making  such  a meal  as  the  weak  state  of  my  stomach  would  admit 
of.  No  inducement  of  mine  could,  however,  prevail  upon  Kaiber 
to  share  with  me,  and  therefore  I handed  him  the  remains  of  the 
cockatoo. 

As  soon  as  my  repast  was  concluded,  I walked  about  three* 
miles  up  the  river,  in  the  hope  of  getting  a duck,  Kaiber  accom- 
panying me.  AVe  saw  several,  but  killed  none.  There  were  some 
fine  reaches  in  the  river,  as  well  as  some  good  flats  along  its  banks. 

In  the  afternoon  we  travelled  about  three  miles  in  a south-by- 
east  direction,  and  then  came  to  the  bed  of  a small  stream,  which 
ran  from  east  to  west,  but  was  now  merely  a chain  of  pools. 
Across  the  bed,  where  we  passed  it,  was  a native  weir.  Our  route 
during  the  whole  evening  lay  over  hills  similar  to  those  we  passed 
yesterday.  AYe  did  not  halt  until  it  was  so  dark  that  we  could 


122 


THE  MOTHER  T0:N^GUE. 


not  see  to  walk,  and  then  just  dropped  at  the  spot  where  we 
ceased  to  move.  The  men  made  their  fire,  and  I lighted  mine 
from  theirs ; but  scarcely  was  this  done  ere  the  rain  fell  in  tor- 
rents. I had  no  blankets  or  protection  of  any  kind  against  this, 
and  Kaiber  was  in  the  same  predicament ; so  that  when  the  fire 
was  extinguished,  our  position  became  pitiable  in  the  extreme, 
for  I know  not  if  I ever  before  suffered  so  much  from  cold ; and 
to  add  to  my  annoyance,  I every  now  and  then  heard  Kaiber  chat- 
tering to  himself,  under  its  effects,  rather  than  singing,  — 

“ O wherefore  did  he  eat  the  mussels  ? 

Now  the  boyl-yas  storms  and  thunder  make ; 

O wherefore  would  he  eat  the  mussels  ? ” 

At  last  I so  completely  lost  my  temper,  that  I roared  out,  “ You 
stone-headed  fellow,  Kaiber,  if  you  talk  of  mussels  again.  I’ll  beat 
you.” 

‘‘What  spoke  I this  morning ?”  replied  Kaiber.  “You  are 
stone-headed.  We  shall  be  dead  directly.  Wherefore  eat  you 
the  mussels? ” 

This  was  beyond  what  my  patience  in  my  present  starved  state 
could  endure.  So  I got  up  and  began  to  grope  about  for  a stick 
or  something  to  throw  in  the  direction  of  the  chattering  block- 
head ; but  he  begged  me  to  remain  quiet,  promising  faithfully 
to  make  no  more  mention  of  the  mussels.  I therefore  squatted 
down  in  a state  of  the  most  abject  wretchedness. 


^ SECTION  99. 

NARRATIVES  AND  STORIES. 

Story  and  narrative  are  synonyms;  but  we  naturally 
make  a distinction  between  them.  A narrative  is  com- 
monly more  formal  in  tone  and  more  serious  in  purpose 
than  a mere  story.  The  distinction  is  convenient,  and 
it  is  exact  enough  for  our  present  needs. 


NAKRATIYES  AND  STORIES. 


123 


Most  narratives  aim  to  instruct.  Historical  narrative, 
for  instance,  often  has  an  explanatory  purpose. 

‘‘The  Siege  of  Arcot  ” (pp.  350-54)  is  a good  story,  but  it  is 
more  than  that ; it  explains  the  achievements  of  Lord  Clive  in 
winning  India  for  the  British  Empire.  So  Scott’s  “ Battle  of 
Bannockburn  ” (pp.  11-16)  has  its  place  in  his  account  of  the 
long  series  of  wars  between  Scotland  and  England. 

Historical  narratives,  then,  though  they  need  the 
qualities  of  good  story-telling,  must  also  follow  the 
principles  of  explanation.  In  this  they  differ  from  stories 
pure  and  simple,  — that  is,  from  tales  that  are  told,  as 
it  were,  for  their  own  sake.  The  same  is  true  of 
narratives  of  travel  and  exploration. 

Compare  ‘‘The  Battle  of  Bannockburn”  (pp.  11-16) 
or  “ Australian  Superstition  ” (pp.  120-22)  with  “ Moses 
and  the  Green  Spectacles  ” (pp.  115-18)  or  with  “ Rum- 
pelstiltskin  ” (pp.  112-14),  and  the  difference  will  appear 
at  once.^ 

To  THE  Teacher.  — Care  should  be  taken  that  the  pupils  do  not  get 
the  idea  that  every  piece  of  narration  can  be  definitely  referred  to  one  or 
the  other  of  the  two  classes  indicated.  They  should  be  made  to  see  that  the 
distinction  consists  in  a difference  of  purpose,  which  induces  a corre- 
sponding difference  in  treatment.  Literature  is  not  science,  and  pigeon- 
hole classification  of  literary  types  is  not  to  be  encouraged.  The  story 
pure  and  simple  may  be  regarded  as  one  extreme  of  a series,  and  unmixed 
exposition  (explanatory  writing)  as  the  other.  Between  these  extremes 
lie  an  almost  infinite  number  of  possible  combinations.  In  particular,  the 
distinction  between  (1)  explanatory  narrative  and  (2)  exposition  that 
employs  narrative  incidentally,  is  often  vague  enough.  Yet  the  general 
distinctions  are  pretty  obvious,  and  it  is  these  alone  that  the  pupil  should 
be  expected  to  understand.  Too  great  exactness  in  these  matters  begets 
confusion  and  thus  defeats  its  own  ends. 

1 The  subject  of  explanation  will  be  treated  later.  It  is  here  mentioned 
to  enforce  the  distinction  between  the  two  kinds  of  narrative  writing. 


124 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  100. 

STORY-TELLING. 

A story  pure  and  simple  (as  distinguished  from  a 
more  formal  narrative)  aims  to  produce  in  the  reader  the 
thoughts  and  feelings  which  the  narrator  has  while  he 
is  telling  it.^  You  read  ‘^Robinson  Crusoe”  or  Steven- 
son’s Treasure  Island  ” not  for  information,  but  in 
order  to  be  amused  or  stirred.  Incidentally,  you  may 
derive  instruction  from  the  work,  but  that  is  not  your 
main  purpose.  You  are  actually  in  search  of  new 
experiences  such  as  your  everyday  life  does  not  ordi- 
narily afford. 

This  kind  of  reading  is  profitable  in  a variety  of  ways, 
if  the  stories  are  good  ones.  To  write  stories  is  also  a 
profitable  exercise.  Without  some  skill  in  this  art,  we 
cannot  relate  our  own  experiences  clearly  and  vividly 
in  a letter  to  a friend.  Such  practice  also  gives  us 
insight  into  the  methods  of  good  narrative  literature 
and  thus  enables  us  to  choose  our  books  better  and 
to  enjoy  them  more  intelligently 

SECTION  101. 

ACTION  IN  STORY-TELLING. 

The  essence  of  story-telling  is  to  make  something 
happen.  Indeed,  the  only  difference  between  a story 

1 Here  pp.  17-22  may  be  informally  reviewed  if  that  seems  necessary. 
Probably,  however,  a mere  reference  to  these  pages  will  suffice. 

2 That  is,  it  cultivates  our  critical  faculty  and  our  power  of  literary 
appreciation. 


ACTION  IN  STORY-TELLING. 


125 


and  a description  is  that  the  story  tells  what  has  hap- 
pened; the  description  tells  what  things  are^  or  where 
they  are^  or  hotv  they  look. 

Action,  then,  is  the  prime  virtue  of  a story. 

The  Bible  stories  are  excellent  models  in  this  respect, 
because  they  concern  themselves  almost  entirely  with 
action  and  contain  very  little  description.  In  the  story 
of  David  and  Goliath,  for  example,  see  how  much  is 
put  into  five  lines  : — 

And  it  came  to  pass  when  the  Philistine  arose  and  came  and 
drew  nigh  to  meet  David,  that  David  hasted  and  ran  toward  the 
army  to  meet  the  Philistine.  And  David  put  his  hand  in  his  bag 
and  took  thence  a stone,  and  slang  it,  and  smote  the  Philistine  in 
his  forehead ; and  he  fell  upon  his  face  to  the  earth. 

Of  the  sixty-one  words  in  this  passage,  fourteen  are 
verbs ; no  unnecessary  nouns  are  used,  and  there  is  not 
a single  descriptive  adjective.  Hence  you  can  hardly 
strike  out  a word  without  taking  away  from  the  action 
of  the  story.  The  structure  of  the  sentences  also 
enhances  this  effect  of  rapid  and  vigorous  movement. 


SECTION  102. 

Read  the  first  page  of  Rumpelstiltskin  ” (p.  112). 
Then  make  a list  of  all  the  words  which  express  or 
suggest  action.  See  how  many  of  these  words  are 
verbs.  What  other  parts  of  speech  do  you  find  in 
your  list? 

Repeat  the  same  exercise  with  Mr.  Riis’s  anecdote 
(p.  10);  with  the  first  page  of  ‘‘Moses  and  the  Green 
Spectacles”  (p.  115);  with  “Lochinvar”  (pp.  118-19). 


126 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  103. 

Read  the  following  selection  from  Hawthorne.  Make 
a framework  or  outline  of  the  passage,  inserting  only 
the  subjects  and  verbs.  See  how  many  of  these  indicate 
action. 

THE  MINOTAUR. 

(From  Hawthorne’s  “ Tanglewood  Tales.”) 

Without  more  words  on  either  side,  there  ensued  the  most 
awful  fight  between  Theseus  and  the  Minotaur  that  ever  hap- 
pened beneath  the  sun  or  moon.  I really  know  not  how  it  might 
have  turned  out,  if  the  monster,  in  his  first  headlong  rush  against 
Theseus,  had  not  missed  him,  by  a hair’s-breadth,  and  broken 
one  of  his  horns  short  off  against  the  stone  wall.  On  this  mis- 
hap, he  bellowed  so  intolerably  that  a part  of  the  labyrinth  tum- 
bled down,  and  all  the  inhabitants  of  Crete  mistook  the  noise  for 
an  uncommonly  heavy  thunder  storm.  Smarting  with  the  pain, 
he  galloped  around  the  open  space  in  so  ridiculous  a way  that 
Theseus  laughed  at  it,  long  afterwards,  though  not  precisely  at 
the  moment.  After  this,  the  two  antagonists  stood  valiantly  up 
to  one  another,  and  fought  sword  to  horn,  for  a long  while.  At 
last,  the  Minotaur  made  a run  at  Theseus,  grazed  his  left  side 
with,  his  horn,  and  flung  him  down ; and  thinking  that  he  had 
stabbed  him  to  the  heart,  he  cut  a great  caper  in  the  air,  opened 
his  bull  mouth  from  ear  to  ear,  and  prepared  to  snap  his  head  off. 
But  Theseus  by  this  time  had  leaped  up,  and  caught  the  monster 
off  his  guard.  Fetching  a sword-stroke  at  him  with  all  his  force, 
he  hit  him  fair  upon  the  neck,  and  made  his  bull  head  skip  six 
yards  from  his  human  body,  which  fell  flat  upon  the  ground. 

So  now  the  battle  was  ended.  Immediately  the  moon  shone  out 
as  brightly  as  if  all  the  troubles  of  the  world,  and  all  the  wicked- 
ness and  the  ugliness  which  infest  human  life,  were  past  and  gone 
forever. 


ACTION. 


127 


SECTION  104. 

1.  Bring  to  the  class  some  piece  of  narration.  Point  out  to 
your  classmates  the  means  by  which  the  writer  has  indicated 
action  on  the  part  of  his  characters  and  has  led  up  to  the  point 
of  his  story. 

2.  Bead  Browning’s  ‘‘Incident  of  the  French  Camp.”  Then 
tell  the  story  as  briefly  and  vividly  as  you  can.  Compare  the 
movement  of  your  story  with  that  of  the  poem. 

3.  Bead  “ The  Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade.”  How  does  it 
illustrate  the  points  which  have  been  made  in  Section  101? 

4.  Lay  out  in  outline  two  or  three  stories  of  things  that  you 
have  done,  putting  in  nothing  but  action. 

5.  Bead  Scott’s  “Lochinvar”  (pp.  118-19).  Make  a list  of 
the  words  that  express  or  suggest  action  in  any  way. 

6.  Write  an  account  of  a day  in  school,  telling  what  you  did. 
Aim  to  make  the  account  effective  by  employing  words  which 
express  action. 

7.  Get  a copy  of  Southey’s  “ How  the  Waters  Come  Down  at 
Lodore.”  Study  the  means  which  the  poet  employs  to  express 
action. 

Sidney  Lanier’s  “Song  of  the  Chattahoochee”  may  he  studied  in  the 
same  way.  “ Hohenlinden,”  “ Marco  Bozzaris,”  and  “ The  Rising  in  ’76  ” 
would  also  be  effective  in  such  study. 

8.  Write  two  brief  telegrams  in  which  you  express,  in  con- 
densed form,  all  the  action  possible. 

Expand  each  telegram  into  a letter,  2'>i’eserviiig  the  effect  of 
action  so  far  as  you  can. 

9.  Write  a letter  to  a friend,  telling  what  you  have  done  during 
the  last  week.  Bewrite  the  letter,  giving  particular  attention  to 
action,  and  introducing  descriptive  words  which  will  make  your 
story  effective. 

10.  Tell  a story  from  Greek  or  Scandinavian  mythology. 
Bulfinch’s  “ Age  of  Fable  ” or  Gayley’s  “ Classic  Myths  ” will 
supply  material,  if  you  have  not  yet  found  it  in  your  own  read- 
ing or  translation.  Attend  particularly  to  action. 


128 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  105. 

THE  POINT  OF  A STORY. 

Further,  the  action  must  not  be  haphazard,  without 
motive  or  result.  A story  must  have  some  point;  other- 
wise there  is  no  reason  for  telling  it. 

Thus,  the  point  of  “ Moses  and  the  Green  Spectacles  ” (pp. 
115-18)  is  the  trick  played  on  Moses;  that  of  Grey’s  ‘‘Australian 
Superstition  ” (pp.  120-22)  is  the  native’s  dread  of  eating  mussels. 
Omit  this  point  in  each  case,  and  the  story  ceases  to  exist. 

Try  to  express  in  a phrase  or  a sentence  the  point  of 
each  of  the  narrative  poems  mentioned  below. 

Observe  that  if  you  succeed  in  expressing  the  point  in  each 
case,  your  phrase  or  sentence  might  serve  as  a title  for  the  poem. 

“Paul  Revere’s  Ride,”  by  Longfellow. 

“Nauhaught  the  Deacon,”  by  Whittier. 

“Lucy  Gray,”  by  Wordsworth. 

“ The  Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin,”  by  Browning. 

“ The  Inchcape  Rock,”  by  Southey. 

“The  Rising  in  ’76,”  by  T.  B.  Read. 

“ Brier  Rose,”  by  H.  H.  Boyesen. 

“One,  Two,  Three,”  by  H.  C.  Bunner. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — This  exercise  will  serve  for  several  lessons.  Other 
poems  or  stories  may  of  course  be  substituted  at  the  discretion  of  the 
teacher.  The  following  list  will  afford  additional  material : — Whittier’s 
“ Mabel  Martin,”  “ Abraham  Davenport,”  “ In  School  Days,”  “ Angels  of 
Buena  Vista”;  Longfellow’s  “Hiawatha”  (selections)  and  “Tales  of  a 
Wayside  Inn”;  Tennyson’s  “Enoch  Arden”;  Browning’s  “Incident  of 
the  French  Camp  ” and  “ How  they  Brought  the  Good  News  from  Ghent 
to  Aix  ” ; Coleridge’s  “Ancient  Mariner”;  Wordsworth’s  “We  are 
Seven”;  Cowper’s  “John  Gilpin”  and  “Wreck  of  the  Royal  George”; 
Jean  Ingelow’s  “ High  Tide  on  the  Coast  of  Lincolnshire.”  The  pupils 
should  also  be  encouraged  to  select  examples  from  their  own  reading. 


OUTLINE  OF  A STORY. 


129 


SECTION  106. 

THE  OUTLINE  OF  A STORYL 

We  have  already  learned  that  selection  of  material^  is 
necessary  in  all  forms  of  composition.  In  story-telling, 
then,  we  must  meet  the  question  ‘‘  What  incidents  shall 
I include  ? ” Common  sense  and  daily  experience  imme- 
diately suggest  the  answer. 

No  story  can  he  an  absolutely  complete  record  of 
what  happened.  A full  account  of  your  thoughts  and 
experiences  for  a single  day  would  fill  many  pages. 
Yet  when  you  consider  the  happenings  of  a day  or  a 
week  or  a year,  you  perceive  that  they  group  them- 
selves round  distinct  incidents  which  have,  for  some 
reason,  impressed  themselves  on  your  memory.  If 
these  are  made  clear,  the  imagination  supplies  many  of 
the  necessary  connecting  links. 

This  observation  you  can  easily  apply  to  stories  that 
you  read. 

So,  in  writing  a story,  you  must  select  a number  of 
significant  incidents  and  let  these  lead  up  to  the  main 
point.  If  the  story  is  simple,  the  incidents  will  arrange 
themselves.  The  simplest  order  is  that  of  time,  which 
should  not  be  violated  except  for  special  reasons.^ 

Study  “ Rumpelstiltskin  ” (pp.  112-14)  and  ‘‘Moses 
and  the  Green  Spectacles”  (pp.  115-18)  in  the  light  of 
what  has  just  been  said. 

You  observe  that  each  is  composed  of  several  dis- 
tinct incidents,  and  that  these  are  arranged  in  an  orderly 

1 Here  pp.  21-22  may  be  informally  reviewed,  if  the  principles  men- 
tioned are  not  clear  in  the  pupil’s  mind. 

2 Here  p.  25  may  be  cited  or  reviewed. 


130 


THE  MOTHER  TO^^GUE. 


way  so  as  to  lead  up  to  the  main  point  of  the  story. 
Each  incident  is  complete  in  itself,  and  our  reason  and 
imagination  provide  the  connecting  links. 

Thus,  in  Rumpelstiltskin ’’  the  incidents  are  (1)  the  miller’s 
boast ; (2)  the  imprisonment  of  the  daughter  ; (3)  the  appearance 
of  the  dwarf,  — and  so  on. 

Moses  and  the  Green  Spectacles  ” covers  an  entire  day.  To 
tell  all  that  happened  in  that  time  would  make  a large  and  very 
stupid  book,  which  nobody  could  read.  Goldsmith  has  accounted 
for  the  whole  day  by  selecting  a number  of  significant  incidents 
and  arranging  them  in  a natural  order.  What  are  the  several 
incidents  ? 

Observe,  too,  that  the  point  of  each  story  is  not  disclosed  until 
the  proper  moment  arrives.  Thus  the  reader’s  interest  is  main- 
tained by  the  suspense  in  which  he  is  held. 

SECTION  107. 

1.  Prepare  an  outline  of  each  of  the  stories  given  on  pages 
8-11.  Write  out  the  story  in  your  own^  words,  following  the 
outline. 

2.  Analyze  the  story  of  ‘M^ochinvar”  as  told  in  the  poem 

(p.  118). 

Write  an  outline  of  the  story,  indicating  (1)  the  principal  facts 
which  are  included,  (2)  the  subordinate  items. 

Construct  the  story  in  prose,  following  your  outline. 

3.  Write  an  outline  of  the  fable  of  ‘‘  The  Lion  and  the  Mouse,” 
indicating  the  principal  and  the  subordinate  items  in  the  story. 

4.  Read  Charles  Kingsley’s  Three  Fishers.”  Then  (1)  prepare 
an  outline  of  the  poem  ; (2)  reproduce  the  story  from  your  outline. 

5.  Study  in  the  same  manner  the  poems  mentioned  in  the  list 
on  page  128. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — The  entire  class  may  study  some  one  poem  which 
the  teacher  selects,  or  each  student  may  study  the  poem  which  he  can  find 
most  easily.  For  additional  material,  see  Note  to  the  Teacher,  p.  128. 


INTRODUCTION  IN  STORY-TELLING.  131 


SECTION  108. 

THE  INTRODUCTION  IN  STORY-TELLING. 

When  you  have  outlined  your  story  and  have  the 
action  clearly  in  mind,  you  have  gone  at  least  halfway. 
In  actual  composition,  however,  you  are  confronted  with 
the  question,  ‘‘  How  shall  the  story  begin  ? ” 

A story  may  begin  with  a brief  introduction  naming 
and  describing  the  characters,  telling  where  the  scene 
is  laid,  or  giving  some  other  information  which  the 
reader  needs. 

In  Franklin’s  First  Day  in  Philadelphia”  (p.  8),  the  first 
paragraph  explains  the  author’s  purpose  in  telling  the  story  and 
describes  his  appearance  and  condition  at  the  beginning  of  the  day. 

In  The  Battle  of  Bannockburn”  (p.  11),  the  first  two  para- 
graphs tell  what  we  need  to  know  about  the  forces  on  each  side. 

In  Longfellow’s  Wreck  of  the  Hesperus,”  the  introduction 
consists  of  two  stanzas.  The  first  informs  us  that  the  story  con- 
cerns a schooner  named  Hesperus,”  and  adds  that  the  skipper 
had  taken  his  daughter  with  him  on  the  voyage ; the  second 
describes  the  daughter.  The  tale  of  the  wreck  begins  with  the 
third  stanza. 

Study  the  poems  mentioned  on  page  128,  with  refer- 
ence to  the  introduction. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — Several  stories  in  prose  or  verse  with  which 
the  pupils  are  already  acquainted  should  now  be  discussed  by  the  teacher 
and  the  class,  with  reference  to  the  length  and  the  contents  of  the  intro- 
duction, as  well  as  its  function  in  the  story.  See  the  note  on  page  128. 

The  pupils  should  observe  that  the  introduction  must  not  be  so  long  as 
to  dwarf  the  composition  itself,  and  that  it  need  not  include  details  that 
will  inevitably  suggest  themselves  to  the  reader  as  he  proceeds.  They 
should  also  notice  that  in  several  of  the  poems  mentioned  there  is  no  intro- 
duction. This  observation  will  prepare  them  for  the  study  of  Section  110. 


132 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  109. 

Tell  a story  out  of  your  own  experience.  Proceed 
in  accordance  with  the  following  plan : — 

1.  Decide  just  what  you  wish  to  tell. 

2.  Prepare  an  outline,  including  an  introduction  if  one  is 
necessary.  Separate  principal  and  subordinate  incidents  care- 
fully, and  arrange  your  material  in  proper  order. 

3.  Write  the  story,  following  your  outline. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — This  exercise  may  be  repeated  a good  many 
times.  Instead  of  writing  the  story,  the  pupil  should  occasionally  be 
required  to  tell  it  orally,  with  his  outline  before  him. 


SECTION  110. 

INTRODUCTION  OMITTED. 

A narrative  often  begins,  so  to  speak,  in  the  middle. 
The  first  sentence  may  introduce  us  to  the  characters 
in  action  or  in  the  midst  of  an  exciting  conversation. 
This  method  has  the  advantage  of  rousing  the  reader’s 
interest  at  the  outset. 

Notice  how  ‘‘Lochinvar”  begins  (p.  118),  without  explaining  who 
Lochinvar  and  the  bride  are  or  describing  the  circumstances  at  all. 

In  such  cases  introductory  matter  may  come  in  later, 
when  the  opening  scene  has  been  concluded. 

Thus,  in  Shakspere’s  Julius  Caesar,’’  the  first  scene  shows  us 
the  Roman  workmen  making  riotous  holiday,  and  the  magistrates 
rebuking  them.  It  is  not  until  the  second  scene  that  we  learn 
the  real  subject  of  the  drama,  — the  plot  against  Caesar  and  its 
results.  So  in  Lochinvar”  (p.  119)  the  fourth  stanza  explains 
(very  briefly)  all  that  we  need  to  know  of  the  previous  history 
of  Lochinvar  and  the  bride. 


INTRODUCTION  OMITTED. 


133 


Find  some  tale  or  drama  which  begins  in  this  way, 
and  show  at  what  point  the  explanatory  matter  is 
brought  in. 

You  will  often  be  surprised  to  see  how  small  a 
quantity  of  explanatory  matter  is  really  needed  to 
make  a story  intelligible.  The  less  explanation  you 
have  to  bring  in,  the  more  interesting  the  story  will 
be.  Something  may  safely  be  trusted  to  the  imagina- 
tion, — more,  indeed,  than  you  would  at  first  suppose. 
Notice  how  needless  an  introduction  would  be  in 
‘‘ Rumpelstiltskin  ” (p.  112). 


SECTION  111. 

Pick  out  one  or  two  incidents  from  Robinson 
Crusoe  ” or  Stevenson’s  Kidnapped,”  and  see  how 
little  preliminary  explanation  will  suffice  to  make 
them  into  complete  stories. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — The  pupils  may  be  required  to  write  this  prelim- 
inary matter  in  the  form  of  a brief  introduction  ; or  one  pupil  may  report  on 
the  subject  orally,  and  the  rest  may  join  in  the  discussion.  In  either  case, 
stress  should  be  laid  on  brevity.  If  an  incident  is  selected  which  needs  no 
introduction,  that  fact  should  he  emphasized. 


SECTION  112. 

1.  Turn  to  such  plays  of  Shakspere  as  you  have  read,  and 
observe  the  way  in  which  they  begin.  Compare  what  was  said 
of  ‘^lulius  Caesar”  on  page  132. 

2.  Report,  in  the  form  of  a story,  the  endeavors  of  Cassius  to 
bring  Brutus  into  the  conspiracy.  Begin  with  an  introduction, 
stating  the  circumstances. 

3.  Tell  the  same  story  without  an  introduction.  Begin  with 
a conversation  between  Brutus  and  Cassius. 


134 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  113. 

THE  CONCLUSION  OF  A STOEY. 

In  writing  a story,  as  we  have  seen,  one  must  have 
clearly  in  mind  a definite  incident  or  point  to  which  the 
details  should  lead  up. 

Thus,  in  ‘‘  Rumpelstiltskin  ” (pp.  112-11)  the  whole  tale  leads 
up  to  the  utterance  of  the  uncanny  creature's  right  name.  In 
Kipling's  ‘‘Jungle  Book,"  the  story  of  “ Kaa's  Hunting"  has  its 
chief  point  in  the  rescue  of  Mowgli. 

This  suggests  the  answer  to  a question  that  often 
causes  trouble:  ‘‘How  shall  a story  close?”  The 
difficulty  varies  with  the  nature  of  the  subject  and 
the  manner  of  treatment. 

If  the  tale  is  well  constructed,  the  point  marks  the 
height  of  the  reader’s  interest  and  should  therefore 
form  the  natural  conclusion,  for  there  is  nothing  more  to 
be  told.  Such  a story  follows  the  principle  of  the  climax, 
and  ends  when  the  summit  of  the  climax  is  reached.^ 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  after  the  point  has  been 
reached,  you  find  it  necessary  to  add  a lengthy  expla- 
nation, you  may  be  sure  that  you  have  not  told  your 
tale  skilfully.  In  that  case,  you  have  to  consider  not 
how  to  conclude,  but  how  to  reconstruct  the  whole 
story  so  that  it  shall  end  naturally  when  the  proper 
moment  arrives. 

1 Climax  is  a Greek  word  meaning  “ ladder.”  In  rhetoric  it  signifies  a 
method  of  construction  in  which  each  part  of  a phrase,  sentence,  or  compo- 
sition is  stronger  or  more  impressive  in  some  way  than  the  part  which 
immediately  precedes.  In  popular  language  the  term  climax  is  often 
applied  to  the  “highest  point”  or  “culmination”  of  the  interest;  hut 
this  is  properly  the  summit  of  the  climax. 


CONCLUSION  OF  A STORY. 


135 


In  a narrative  meant  to  convey  information,  to  explain 
something,  or  to  prove  a statement  or  principle,  a more 
formal  conclusion  may  be  necessary.  This  may  consist 
of  a paragraph  setting  forth  the  object  of  the  whole  or 
reciting  the  proposition  that  has  been  proved.  Such  a 
paragraph  forms  either  an  explanatory  or  a logical  conclusion. 

Above  all  things,  one  should  avoid  the  practice  of 
closing  with  a flowery  sentence,  a commonplace  moral, 
or  a feeble  bit  of  sentiment.  The  conclusion  ought  to 
seem  natural  and  inevitable.  Otherwise  it  is  usually 
better  to  ‘‘stop  when  you  get  through,”  even  at  the 
risk  of  a little  abruptness.^ 

SECTION  114. 

1.  Read  the  narrative  selections  contained  in  this  book,  with 
particular  reference  to  the  conclusion  of  each.  Copy  the  con- 
clusion of  each  narrative,  observing  whether  it  is  a brief  summary, 
a moral,  a logical  conclusion,  or  a mere  formal  ending. 

2.  From  the  material  which  you  are  studying  in  history  or 
literature,  select  a brief  narrative  in  which  the  author  has  made 
a good  conclusion.  Bring  your  story  to  the  class  and  present  the 
chief  characteristics  of  the  conclusion. 

3.  Find  a short  anecdote  which  has  a distinct  point  and  ends 
when  the  point  is  made.  How  do  the  details  lead  up  to  the 
point  ? 

4.  Copy  some  fable  in  which  the  moral  is  expressed.  Recite 
your  fable  to  the  class,  discussing  the  effect  of  the  moral. 

5.  Invent  a fable.  Try  to  tell  it  so  that  no  moral  is  necessary, 
but  state  in  a brief  sentence  the  truth  that  you  intend  the  fable 
to  illustrate.  Bring  the  fable  to  the  class  for  criticism,  and  there 
decide  whether  the  moral  should  be  appended  or  not. 

1 In  a letter,  however,  an  abrupt  ending  may  suggest  discourtesy  and 
thus  give  a false  impression  of  the  writer.  See  p.  83. 


136 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  115. 

THE  FIRST  PERSON  IN  NARRATION. 

It  is  good  practice  to  write  stories  in  the  first  person, 
whether  they  are  accounts  of  your  own  experiences  or 
not.  This  device  not  only  helps  to  ensure  liveliness 
and  reality,  but  it  assists  you  in  selecting  your  material 
and  in  keeping  to  the  point. 

The  reason  is  plain.  It  is  a general  principle  of 
human  nature  that  every  one  is  of  considerable  interest 
to  himself.  If  you  put  yourself  in  the  place  of  one  of 
the  characters  in  the  story,  the  incidents  become  more 
real  to  you,  and  you  are  therefore  more  likely  to  keep 
track  of  them  and  to  make  them  lead  up  directly  and 
forcibly  to  the  point  that  you  wish  to  make.  You  have 
also  a keener  sense  of  the  locality  and  the  attendant 
circumstances,  so  that  you  unconsciously  add  many 
touches  of  action  and  description  which  impart  color 
and  animation  to  the  wRole. 

When  you  tell  a story  in  this  way,  — “ from  the 
inside,”  as  it  were, — you  should  be  particularly  care- 
ful not  to  shift  the  point  of  view.  Remember  that  you 
are  yourself  one  of  the  actors ; keep  in  mind  your  own 
position  in  the  scene,  and  do  not  relate,  as  if  you  were 
an  eye-witness,  incidents  which  you  could  not  have 
seen  without  being  in  two  places  at  the  same  time. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — The  pupil  should  not  be  allowed  to  regard  what 
is  said  of  telling  stories  in  the  first  person  as  an  invariable  “rule.”  He 
should  take  it  merely  as  a suggestion.  His  own  reading  will  enforce  it, 
and  will  at  the  same  time  show  that  there  are  numerous  exceptions.  The 
caution  about  the  point  of  view  will  be  abundantly  illustrated  by  the 
exercises  in  Section  116. 


POINT  OF  VIEW. 


137 


SECTION  116. 

The  following  exercises  afford  practice  in  telling  the 
same  story  from  different  points  of  view.  Use  the  first 
person,  except  in  Nos.  2 and  9.  Observe  that  the 
incidents  that  are  included  depend  in  part  on  who  is 
telling  the  story. 

1.  Tell  the  story  of  ^‘The  Wreck  of  the  Hesperus”  as  if  you 
were  the  sailor  who  discovered  the  body  of  the  child  upon  the 
beach. 

2.  Tell  the  story  of  “ Lochiuvar  ” as  an  historian  might  tell 
it.  Observe  how  the  order  of  your  story  differs  from  that  of  the 
poem. 

3.  Tell  the  story  of  Lochinvar  ” as  the  hero  might  have  told 
it  years  afterward. 

4.  Tell  the  story  of  “ Lochinvar  ” as  the  bride  might  have 
told  it. 

5.  Imagine  yourself  in  the  place  of  the  father  in  Lochinvar,” 
and  tell  the  story. 

6.  Study  Wordsworth’s  We  are  Seven,”  and  tell  the  story  as 
the  little  girl  might  have  told  it  to  her  mother. 

7.  TeU  the  story  of  Mabel  Martin  ” as  Mabel  might  have 
told  it. 

8.  Eead  The  High  Tide  on  the  Coast  of  Lincolnshire.”  Then 
write  the  story  in  a manner  likely  to  interest  children. 

9.  A boys’  club  is  studying  history.  Tell  them  the  story  of 
Paul  Eevere’s  Ride.” 

First,  explain  briefly  the  conditions  that  made  the  ride  neces- 
sary. Then  proceed  with  the  story  itself.  Remember  that  the 
boys  will  not  listen  unless  you  make  the  subject  interesting. 

Compare  the  order  of  your  narrative  in  Exercise  9 with  the 
order  in  Longfellow’s  poem.  How  does  Longfellow  introduce 
the  facts  that  you  have  put  into  your  introductory  statement? 
Are  there  other  differences  of  order? 


138 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  117. 

CONVERSATION  IN  STORIES. 

In  real  life,  a word  or  a speech  may  be  quite  as 
important  as  an  act.  Dialogue  or  conversation,  therefore, 
is  an  important  element  in  a story. 

After  Moses  has  come  home  from  the  fair  (p.  116),  what  he 
says  advances  the  story  quite  as  much  as  what  he  does.  So  in 
‘‘Rumpelstiltskin  ” (pp.  112-14),  the  threats  and  commands  of 
the  goblin  are  necessary  parts  of  the  tale. 

Dialogue  adds  variety  to  a story,  and  thus  stimulates 
the  reader’s  interest.  It  makes  the  action  seem  real  by 
reproducing  the  very  words  of  the  actors  and  it  may 
also  often  throw  light  on  their  character  or  circumstances. 

So,  in  the  extract  on  pages  115-18,  the  vicar  speaks  far  more 
calmly  than  his  wife  and  uses  better  language.  The  wife’s  hasty 
temper,  goodness  of  heart,  and  inexperience  are  shown  in  every 
speech  she  utters.  Again,  the  boyish  self-conceit  of  Moses  comes 
out  unmistakably  in  his  first  remarks  after  his  return. 

Thus  the  use  of  conversation  may  enable  a writer  to 
spare  a good  deal  of  descriptive  or  explanatory  matter 
that  might  otherwise  be  needed. 

In  story-telling,  however,  as  in  actual  life,  too  much 
“talk”  is  tiresome.  The  conversation  should  never  clog 
or  enfeeble  the  action. 

In  many  stories,  the  actors,  or  some  of  them,  talk  in  a local  dialect  and 
perhaps  nse  bad  grammar.  Such  conversation  shows  immediately  where 
the  story  is  placed,  and  to  what  condition  of  life  the  speakers  belong. 
Dialect,  however,  has  no  virtue  in  itself ; and,  if  used  without  restraint,  it 
soon  becomes  very  tiresome.  A mere  suggestion  of  peculiarities  in  speech 
is  far  better  than  a laborious  attempt  at  complete  reproduction. 


CONYEKSATIOX. 


139 


SECTION  118. 

CONVEESATION  EEPOETING  ACTION. 

When  a story  is  told  in  the  first  person,  it  often  hap- 
pens that  a part  of  the  action  takes  place  at  a distance 
from  the  main  scene,  or,  at  all  events,  not  under  the 
eyes  of  the  supposed  narrator.  In  such  cases,  this  part 
of  the  action  may  be  reported  in  a conversation  in  which 
the  narrator  takes  part  or  which  he  overhears. 

In  “ The  Yicar  of  Wakefield/'  for  instance,  what  happened  at 
the  fair  is  related  in  the  conversation  that  follows  the  return  of 
Moses  (pp.  116-18). 

A similar  device  may  be  employed  in  stories  told  in 
the  third  person. 

Thus,  in  ‘‘ Eumpelstiltskin  " (p.  114),  the  messenger  clears  up 
the  whole  mystery  in  the  report  which  he  makes  to  the  queen. 
He  has  seen  a ridiculous  little  man  hopping  about  a fire  and 
singing  a song  that  reveals  the  wished-for  name. 

In  both  of  these  stories,  then,  the  action  is  advanced 
in  a direct  and  orderly  way  by  means  of  conversation. 


SECTION  119. 

CONYEESATION  CONDENSED. 

The  conversation  in  a story  can  repeat  but  a small 
part  of  what  would  actually  have  been  said  in  real  life. 

You  can  read  all  the  dialogue  on  pages  116-18  in  two  or  three 
minutes  ; but  of  course  the  actual  scene  would  have  lasted  much 
longer.  Goldsmith  put  in  only  enough  to  tell  what  happened 
and  to  suggest  the  feelings  and  characters  of  the  actors. 


140 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


To  write  out  all  that  is  said  in  even  a single  recita- 
tion would  require  many  pages.  A story  that  should 
attempt  to  record  every  word  that  might  have  been 
spoken  would  swell  out  of  all  proportion.  In  writing 
a conversation,  therefore,  select  such  speeches  as  will 
help  to  advance  the  action  or  to  make  the  narrative  lively, 
and  leave  the  Test  to  the  imagination  of  your  reader. 

SECTION  120. 

1.  Imagine  yourself  a witness  of  the  fire  described  by  Mr. 
Riis  (p.  10).  On  returning  home,  you  tell  your  sister  what  you 
have  seen  and  heard.  Report  the  conversation  in  such  a manner 
as  to  tell  the  story  of  the  fire. 

2.  Tell  the  story  of  Wordsworth’s  ‘‘We  are  Seven”  entirely 
in  the  third  person,  omitting  direct  quotations.  Compare  your 
story  with  the  poem,  noting  the  effect  of  the  conversation. 

3.  Read  Browning’s  “Incident  of  the  French  Camp.”  Study 
the  introduction.  What  does  it  include  ? How  much  is  told  by 
means  of  conversation  ? Study  the  conversation  carefully  to  see 
whether  the  author  has  used  any  superfluous  words. 

4.  Bring  to  the  class  some  story  (either  in  verse  or  prose) 
which  is  told  chiefly  by  means  of  conversation.  Read  it  to  the 
class,  and  ask  questions  to  direct  their  study  of  the  story. 

5.  Read  to  the  class  a selection  from  Cooper  in  which  the 
narrative  is  carried  on  by  means  of  conversation. 

6.  Bring  to  the  class  some  short  story  (from  a magazine)  which 
illustrates  the  effective  use  of  conversation  in  narrative. 

7.  A common  fault  in  narrative  which  reports  conversation  is 
the  frequent  introduction  of  “said  I,”  “said  he,”  “I  said,”  “he 
said.” 

Report  a conversation,  attempting  to  avoid  this  fault.  Sug- 
gest other  phrases  by  which  “ says  he,”  “ said  I ” may  be  replaced. 

Note.  — Observe  that  “ says  I ” is  never  allowable.  Under  what  cir- 
cumstances might  “ says  she  ” and  “ he  says  ” be  appropriate  ? 


MATERIAL  FOR  STORIES. 


141 


SECTION  121. 

MATERIAL  FOR  STORIES. 

No  life  is  so  flat  and  dull  as  not  to  afford  material  for 
good  stories.  Literature  abounds  in  illustrations  of  this 
truth. 

Goldsmith’s  ‘‘Vicar  of  Wakefield”  sliows  what  a writer  of 
genius  may  accomplish  with  the  simplest  materials.  Mr.  Barrie’s 
“ Window  in  Thrums  ” is  a collection  of  short  stories  about  a sick 
woman,  shut  up  in  her  room  in  an  out-of-the-way  village  in  Scot- 
land. It  hardly  goes  beyond  what  she  can  see  from  her  window 
or  what  the  neighbors  say  when  they  call. 

The  short  stories  in  the  better  magazines  often  deal  with  life 
in  little  country  towns,  with  the  daily  work  of  newspaper  report- 
ers, with  children’s  doings,  or  with  the  slums  in  great  cities. 

The  art  of  story-writing  consists  largely  in  the  ability 
to  discern  the  human  interest  in  commonplace  experi- 
ences. To  make  such  stories  interesting,  one  must 
learn  not  to  neglect  and  despise  the  little  things  of  life. 
For,  after  all,  these  trifles,  as  we  call  them,  go  far  to 
make  our  lot  in  the  world  pfleasant  or  disagreeable.  We 
all  know  what  it  is  ‘‘to  get  up  on  the  wrong  side  of 
the  bed,”  and  how,  on  such  days,  every  trivial  occur- 
rence is  an  obstacle  or  a burden. 

The  newspaper  reporter  has  few  great  events  to 
chronicle.  Yet,  as  he  walks  about  the  streets,  he  fills 
liis  notebook  daily  with  items  that  people  are  eager  to 
read.  The  materials  for  story- writing,  then,  are  abun- 
dant. We  must  train  ourselves  to  observe  small  Iiap)- 
penings,  to  recognize  their  significance,  and  to  report 
them  so  vividly  that  others  will  appreciate  their  interest. 


142 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


Observe  the  details  that  Goldsmith  thinks  it  worth  while  to 
notice  and  to  put  into  his  Vicar  of  Wakefield”  (p.  116,  above). 
Mr.  Burchell  had  bought  the  children  each  a pennyworth  of 
gingerbread,  which,  says  the  vicar,  my  wife  undertook  to  keep 
for  them  and  give  them  by  little  at  a time.”  Again,  the  vicar’s 
wife  ‘‘was  unusually  fond  of  a weasel-skin  purse,  as  being  the 
most  lucky.” 

Read  the  description  which  Dickens  gives  of  “ The  Old  Boat  ” 
(pp.  159-60,  below),  and  you  will  appreciate  the  effectiveness  of 
trifles  when  handled  by  a great  writer. 

Even  in  “ Lochinvar  ” (p.  119),  which  is  so  brief,  and  moves  so 
rapidly,  we  find  the  line  “ And  the  bridegroom  stood  dangling  his 
bonnet  and  plume.”  Omit  it,  and  note  what  is  lost.  “ Rumpel- 
stiltskin  ” (p.  112)  would  not  be  so  good  without  the  “whirr,  whirr, 
whirr  ” of  the  mill  wheel.  In  Grey’s  “ Australian  Superstition  ” 
(p.  122),  the  exact  words  of  poor  Kaiber’s  song  about  the  mussels 
impart  vividness  and  reality  to  the  anecdote. 

The  preceding  examples  bring  out  the  value  of  small 
details  in  story-writing. 

SECTION  122. 

SIGNIFICANCE  OF  DETAILS. 

Good  writers  never  encumber  their  stories  with  useless 
matter.  They  may  introduce  a multitude  of  details,  but 
every  one  serves  a definite  purpose. 

In  “ The  Vicar  of  Wakefield,”  for  instance.  Goldsmith  wishes 
to  make  the  reader  feel  the  simplicity  and  unworldliness  of  the 
vicar  and  his  family.  This  he  accomplishes  by  the  aid  of  many 
little  touches,  some  of  them  apparently  quite  accidental,  but 
all  in  reality  significant.^  If  Mr.  Burchell  had  been  the  subject 


1 See  the  extract  on  pages  115-18.  Compare  i)p.  21-24. 


SIGNIFICANCE  OF  DETAILS. 


143 


of  the  story,  Goldsmith  would  have  selected  his  details  quite 
differently. 

Again,  in  “ Rumpelstiltskin  ” ^ (p.  114),  the  wrong  names  are 
mentioned  with  deliberate  purpose,  in  order  to  increase  the 
reader’s  suspense. 

In  Grey’s  ‘‘Australian  Superstition”  (p.  121),  the  use  of  the 
native  word  for  wizard  marks  the  contrast  between  the  ignorant 
savage  and  the  enlightened  explorer.  Thus  the  point  of  the 
story  comes  out  more  clearly. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — This  section  is  illustrative.  It  directs  the  pupil’s 
attention  to  the  practice  of  good  writers  and  should  be  of  service  in  culti- 
vating the  critical  faculty.  The  method  here  suggested  may  be  followed 
in  connection  with  other  examples  and  in  the  criticism  of  the  pupil’s  own 
work.  Such  analysis,  however,  should  not  be  pushed  too  far.  Exhaust- 
iveness is  out  of  the  question. 


SECTION  123. 

1.  Make  a note  of  thirty  little  things  that  have  happened  to 
you,  or  have  come  under  your  observation,  in  the  last  six  hours. 
Then  select  such  as  you  think  you  might  use  in  a story  (1)  of 
child  life,  (2)  of  an  accident,  (3)  of  home  life. 

2.  Read  “ Rip  van  Winkle,”  and  report  to  the  class  passages 
that  illustrate  Irving’s  observation  of  details. 

3.  Read  Cowper’s  “John  Gilpin,”  noting  the  details  which 
enliven  the  story  and  make  it  effective. 

4.  Study  Hawthorne’s  account  of  the  fight  with  the  Minotaur 
(p.  126)  in  the  same  way. 

5.  Find  a chapter  of  “ Ivanhoe,”  “ Quentin  Durward,”  or  “ The 
Talisman,”  that  is  full  of  action.  Note  the  details,  and  try  to 
determine  the  purpose  of  each. 

1 “ Rumpel  stilt  skin  ” is  a fairy  tale  derived  from  oral  tradition.  It  is 
not,  in  its  origin,  a conscious  piece  of  individual  literary  art.  Its  form, 
then,  is  due  in  the  main  to  a kind  of  “ natural  selection,”  The  finishing 
touches,  however,  were  given  by  William  Grimm, 


144 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  124. 

COMPLICATION  OF  PLOT. 

A simple  story,  as  we  have  seen,  may  follow  the 
order  of  time  throughout;  but  in  a more  complicated 
narrative  this  is  seldom  possible.  For  example,  there 
may  be  two  sets  of  characters  acting  in  different  places 
at  the  same  time,  and  the  point  of  the  story  may  be  the 
combined  effect  of  their  separate  action. 

Thus  the  story  of  the  discovery  of  a gold  mine  might  bring  in 
(1)  an  exploring  or  prospecting  party  who  are  searching  for  gold, 
and  (2)  a band  of  hunters  who  have  come  from  quite  another 
direction  and  have  no  thought  of  treasure.  The  point  of  the 
story  might  be  the  simultaneous  discovery  of  the  mine  by  the 
two  parties  and  their  contest  over  the  ownership. 

This  is  a very  simple  example,  but  it  illustrates 
the  general  principle  of  all  complications  of  plot.  The 
search  of  the  prospectors  and  the  wanderings  of  the 
hunting  party  take  place  at  the  same  time,  but  they 
cannot  be  told  at  the  same  time. 

In  a novel  or  romance  the  complications  may  be  very 
numerous ; for  a number  of  different  stories  may  com- 
bine to  make  the  plot  of  the  book.  In  such  cases,  the 
author  must  keep  the  several  sets  of  characters  distinct, 
as  well  as  their  action,  until  the  moment  when  they 
naturally  come  together  or  cross  each  other’s  path. 

“A  T‘d\e  of  Two  Cities,”  for  instance,  might  be  analyzed  into 
a number  of  separate  stories : the  story  of  IMr.  Lorry,  of  the 
Manettes,  of  Carton,  of  Darnay,  of  the  Defarges,  of  Cruncher. 
In  constructing  the  plot,  Dickens  brings  these  persons,  who  differ 
so  widely  in  character  and  circumstances,  into  such  situations 


COMPLTCATIOX  OF  PLOT. 


145 


that  their  several  fortunes  act  and  react  upon  each  other,  until 
finally  Sidney  Carton,  who  seems  to  be  wasting  his  life,  comes 
under  the  ennobling  influence  of  Lucie  and  sacrifices  himself  to 
save  her  husband. 

Stevenson’s  ‘‘Treasure  Island”  is  a good  example  of 
the  complications  of  time  and  action  that  may  arise  in 
a not  very -elaborate  plot.  It  also  illustrates  the  art  of  a 
good  stoiy-teller  in  keeping  the  parts  of  a plot  distinct 
so  that  there  is  no  confusion  in  the  reader’s  mind. 

Part  I describes  the  pirates  and  tells  how  the  map  of  Treasure 
Island  was  found  in  Billy  Bones’s  sea  chest.  Here  everything 
moves  in  the  actual  order  of  time ; for  the  narrator,  flim  Hawkins, 
is  the  chief  actor  in  all  these  events. 

At  the  beginning  of  Part  II,  however.  Squire  Trelawney  is  in 
Bristol,  purchasing  a ship  for  the  expedition  and  engaging  his 
crew,  — among  them  John  Silver,  who  afterwards  causes  so  much 
trouble.  Jim  is  still  at  home.  Hence  Mr.  Trelawney’s  doings 
are  narrated  in  a letter  to  old  Redruth,  which  is  read  aloud  by 
Jim,  because  the  recipient  ‘‘was  a poor  hand  at  reading  anything 
but  print.” 

Then  the  story  continues  in  Jim’s  own  words.  The  conspiracy 
of  the  mutineers,  however,  is  not  inserted  in  its  actual  chrono- 
logical position.  It  had  been  formed  before  the  ship  sailed, 
l)ut  our  first  knowledge  of  the  plan  conies  from  a conversation 
between  Silver  and  the  mutineers,  which  Jim  overhears  from  his 
liiding-place  in  the  apple  barrel. 

Later,  when  the  island  is  reached  and  Jim  has  slipped  ashoi*e, 
there  are  the  separate  adventures  (1)  of  flim,  (2)  of  Captain 
Smollett’s  party,  and  (3)  of  Silver’s  gang,  — all  of  which  are 
going  on  at  the  same  time  but  in  different  places.  These  have  to 
be  kept  distinct ; yet  their  relations  to  each  other  must  be  made 
plain.  Accordingly,  Jim  tells  his  own  adventures;  then  three 
chapters  are  given  to  the  Doctor’s  story  of  what  happened  to  the 
Captain’s  party;  and  finally,  when  Jim  resumes  the  narrative. 


146 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


Silver  comes  in  with  a flag  of  truce  and  we  gather  enough  of  what 
has  happened  to  the  mutineers  to  keep  the  story  intelligible. 

So  the  tale  goes  on,  Jim’s  personal  adventures  coming  more  and 
more  to  the  front,  until,  at  the  end,  all  that  has  happened  to  the 
others  while  Jim  was  in  the  coracle,  on  board  the  Hispaniola,  and 
in  the  mutineers’  camp,  is  related  to  Jim,  in  a few  words,  as  the 
party  “proceeds  leisurely  downhill  to  where  the  boats  are  lying.” 

Compare  Stevenson’s  ‘‘Treasure  Island”  with  “Robin- 
son Crusoe,”  and  you  will  at  once  perceive  that  the 
former  has  the  more  complicated  plot.  In  “ Robinson 
Crusoe,”  ^ long  as  it  is,  there  is  only  a single  story,  — 
that  of  Crusoe’s  own  experiences. 

The  tale  “begins  at  the  beginning.”  Crusoe  tells  of  his  birth 
and  parentage,  how  he  first  went  to  sea,  then  became  a Guinea 
trader,  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Moors,  escaped  and  settled  in 
Brazil,  and  finally  embarked  on  the  voyage  which  ended  with  his 
shipwreck.  Since  Crusoe  is  the  only  person  concerned,  all  these 
events  are  told  in  the  order  in  which  they  occurred.  From  this 
point,  except  for  Friday’s  account  of  himself,  the  book  is  a 
straightforward  record  of  Robinson’s  adventures.  Hence  Defoe 
can  still  follow  the  order  of  time,  and  has  no  trouble  in  keep- 
ing the  thread  of  the  story  from  breaking  or  getting  tangled. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — Pupils  should  not  undertake  the  construction  of 
plots  that  are  at  all  complicated.  The  study  of  “ Treasure  Island  ” outlined 
in  this  section  will  serve  to  warn  them  against  this  error  in  judgment. 
Further,  they  should  he  directed  to  select  simple  stories  when  they  are 
asked  to  bring  in  examples  of  narration.  The  analysis  of  “ Treasure 
Island”  may  he  followed  hy  similar  exercises  with  other  books  if  the  class 
is  ready  for  such  work.  “ Ivanhoe,”  “ The  Talisman,”  A Tale  of  Two 
Cities,”  “David  Copperfield,”  and  “Silas  Marner  ” will  afford  material 
enough. 

1 Part  I is  of  course  meant. 


NARRATIVE  IN  LITERATURE. 


147 


SECTION  125. 

THE  NARRATIVE  IN  LITERATURE. 

If  we  turn  to  literature,  and  consider  the  stories  that 
have  been  woven  out  of  the  tangled  threads  of  human 
experience,  we  find  almost  as  many  varieties  as  there 
are  kinds  of  readers.  The  diversity  is  so  great,  and  the 
differences  melt  into  each  other  so  indistinguishably, 
that  no  thoroughgoing  classification  is  possible.  We 
may  begin,  however,  with  the  familiar  division  into 
“ true  stories  ” and  fiction. 

Among  true  stories  ” we  may  classify  histories, 
biographies,  and  other  similar  works  that  we  have 
decided  to  call  narratives  (pp.  122-3).  With  them 
would  go  books  of  travel  and  exploration,  like  Stan- 
ley’s In  Darkest  Africa,”  Nansen’s  ‘‘  Farthest  North,” 
Grey’s  Explorations  in  Australia,”  and  Dana’s  ‘‘  Two 
Years  Before  the  Mast.”  Such  narratives  are  often  as 
entertaining  as  any  novel.  Besides,  they  record  facts 
of  permanent  importance,  for  their  material  is  the  actual 
experience  of  real  men  and  women. 

The  great  class  of  fiction  includes  not  only  made-up 
stories,”  but  also  many  poems  and  plays.  Indeed,  it 
comprises  the  greater  part  of  what  we  commonly  call 
literature.  In  such  works,  the  material,  instead  of  being 
the  actual  experience  of  a limited  number  of  real 
persons,  may  be  drawn  from  the  collective  experience 
of  many  ages  and  nations,  or  it  may  pass  beyond  expe- 
rience into  the  realm  of  the  purely  imaginative.  This 
class  of  literature  is  of  boundless  extent.  It  includes, 
on  the  one  hand,  works  like  ‘‘  Robinson  Crusoe  ” and 


148 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


David  Copperfield,”  which  seem  almost  truer  than 
reality,  and,  on  the  other,  fairy  stories,  dramas  like 
‘‘  A Midsummer  Night’s  Dream,”  and,  in  our  own  day, 
tales  like  those  in  Kipling’s  “Jungle  Books,”  — all  of 
them  the  product  of  the  poetical  imagination.  In  fic- 
tion, then,  the  material  of  experience  has  been,  as  it 
were,  dissolved  and  recrystallized  into  new  creations, 
of  'which  some  bear  the  semblance  of  reality,  while 
others  are  unreal  and  even  fantastic. 

The  mere  fact  that  a story  is  a work  of  fiction,  how- 
ever, does  not  prevent  its  having  a deep  and  significant 
truth  of  its  own.  Great  pieces  of  literature,  such  as  the 
novels  of  Hawthorne  or  Dickens  or  Thackeray,  or  the 
plays  of  Shakspere,  are  true  to  nature  in  a sense  that  is 
not  merely  figurative  ; for  they  exhibit  life  and  charac- 
ter in  distinct  and  intelligible  outlines.  A simple  fairy 
tale  like  “ The  Ugly  Duckling  ” may  bring  into  clear 
light  the  pathos  of  some  life  that  seemed  lost  in  the 
multitude  of  everyday  details. 

That  fiction  has  a truth  of  its  own  we  may  easily  see 
by  considering  how  it  is  used  in  fables  and  allegories  to 
convey  a lesson.  A fable,  which  is  a very  short  story, 
usually  of  beasts  or  inanimate  objects,  throws  into 
strong  relief  some  characteristic  or  foible  of  human 
nature.  “The  Fox  and  the  Grapes  ” and  “The  Lion’s 
Sliare  ” are  fables  that  have  passed  into  proverbs.  An 
allegory  is  a more  artificial  and  elaborate  parable,  in 
which  the  actors  are  sometimes  personified  qualities, 
like  Courage  or  Temperance  or  Craftiness.  Both  alle- 
gory and  fable  show  how  effectively  fiction  may  convey 
deep  and  universal  truths. 

We  find,  then,  that  the  distinction  between  “true 


NARRATIVE  IN  LITERATURE. 


149 


stories  ” and  works  of  pure  imagination,  though  con- 
venient, is  not  quite  essential.  For  fiction  may  be  just 
as  true^  in  the  higher  sense  of  the  word,  as  history  or 
travel  or  any  other  record  of  actual  experience.  Let 
us  therefore  make  another  classification  of  stories, 
dividing  them  into  (1)  those  that  have  their  main 
interest  in  adventure,  and  (2)  those  in  which  the  emphasis 
is  laid  rather  on  character  or  manners. 

The  first  class  needs  no  discussion.  llobinson 
Crusoe  ” has  been  read  for  two  hundred  years,  and  is 
quite  as  popular  now  as  it  was  in  Defoe’s  lifetime. 
Indeed,  tales  of  adventure  were  never  in  greater  favor 
than  they  are  to-day.  Stevenson’s  ‘‘  Treasure  Island  ” 
and  Kidnapped  ” and  Kipling’s  stories  are  familiar  to 
every  one.  Such  tales  give  us  pleasure  because  through 
them  we  share  in  new  and  stirring  experiences  which 
most  of  us  can  never  have.  They  bring  the  whole 
world  to  our  firesides.  As  we  read  them,  we  feel  the 
enchantment  of  strange  lands  and  distant  seas. 

In  stories  of  the  second  class,  — and  especially  in 
novels,  — the  interest  lies  not  so  much  in  what  the 
actors  do  as  in  what  they  are.  The  purpose  is  not 
primarily  to  describe  adventures,  but  rather  to  portray 
character. 

Into  this  class  fall  such  works  as  George  Eliot’s 
novels,  with  most  of  those  of  Dickens,  of  Thackeray, 
and  (among  American  writers)  of  Hawthorne.  There 
may  be  incident  in  plenty  (as  in  ‘‘A  Tale  of  Two  Cities”), 
yet  the  chief  purpose  is  to  bring  the  actors  into  situa- 
tions that  will  throw  their  characters  into  relief. 

Compare  a story  of  pure  adventure,  like  Robinson 
Crusoe”  or  “Treasure  Island,”  with  the  “Tale  of 


150 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


Two  Cities,”  and  you  feel  the  difference  at  once.  In 
the  latter,  there  are  as  many  exciting  events,  as  many 
hairbreadth  escapes,  as  in  either  of  the  former.  Yet 
you  instinctively  feel  that  these  are  not  told  merely  for 
their  own  sake.  There  is  a great  deal  else  in  the  story. 
You  remember  the  sweetness  of  Lucie;  the  uprightness 
of  Doctor  Manette;  the  quiet,  fierce  heat  of  Madame 
Defarge’s  vengeance ; the  nobility  concealed  under  the 
reckless  bearing  of  Sidney  Carton.  All  these  persons, 
with  many  others,  are  brought  so  vividly  before  you  in  the 
Tale  of  Two  Cities  ” that  you  forget  that  they  are 
creatures  of  the  imagination.  Indeed,  the  characters  in 
novels  are  often  far  more  real  to  us  than  the  personages 
of  history. 

Frequently,  too,  the  main  interest  of  a work  of  fiction 
resides  in  the  state  of  society  or  of  manners  that  it  por- 
trays. Such  is  the  case  in  Jane  Austen’s  novels.  In 
our  own  day,  the  life  of  New  England  has  been  described 
in  the  stories  of  Miss  Jewett  and  Miss  Wilkins ; that  of 
the  Middle  West  by  Octave  Thanet.  Though  the  life 
that  they  portray  is  commonplace  enough,  it  is  so  vividly 
and  naturally  depicted  that  nobody  finds  it  dull. 

The  reason  why  studies  of  character  and  manners 
are  so  widely  read  is  that  human  nature  is  always  inter- 
esting. A good  novelist  picks  out  a few  typical  persons, 
and  detaches  their  experiences  from  those  of  the  mass 
of  people  that  surround  them.  Thus  we  get  a vivid 
impression  of  their  human  qualities,  and  our  interest  is 
roused  and  sustained. 

An  intelligent  reading  of  the  best  novels  is  not  a 
waste  of  time ; for  to  understand  human  nature  is  no 
small  part  of  wisdom.  But  we  must  distinguish  between 


NARRATIVE  IN  LITERATURE. 


151 


what  is  really  good  and  what  is  merely  entertaining  for 
the  moment.  A good  novel  preserves,  in  memorable 
form,  some  record  of  human  nature  which  is  true  to 
life.  The  general  run  of  trashy  stories  do  little  more 
than  put  a set  of  wooden  puppets  through  a series  of 
mechanical  and  meaningless  antics. 

The  greatest  figure  in  all  English  literature  is  Shak- 
spere.  He  owes  his  preeminence  in  part  to  the  beauty 
and  splendor  of  his  poetry.  Even  more  he  owes  it, 
however,  to  his  unfailing  insight  into  human  nature  in 
all  its  variety  and  all  its  depths.  Most  of  his  dramatic 
material  was  common  to  the  playwrights  of  his  day. 
Tragedies  of  revenge  were  familiar  to  the  London 
stage  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Most  of 
them  are  forgotten,  except  by  scholars.  Yet  ‘‘  Hamlet  ” 
survives  because  Shakspere  inspired  the  persons  of  the 
drama  with  such  life  that  we  cannot  bring  ourselves  to 
regard  them  as  fictitious.  Men  still  discuss  the  character 
of  Hamlet  as  seriously  as  they  discuss  the  character  of 
Napoleon. 


To  THE  Teacher.  — This  section  is  meant  for  reading  and  discussion 
and  should  be  adapted  to  the  needs  and  experience  of  the  pupils.  If  they 
have  read  many  stories,  they  should  observe  how  the  interest  of  one  lies  in 
incident,  and  that  of  another  in  character  or  manners ; and  they  may  be 
brought  to  perceive  how  the  portrayal  of  character  deepens  and  enhances 
the  value  of  a novel  or  romance.  A comparison  between  different  kinds  of 
biography  will  help  to  make  the  distinction  clear.  Thus,  they  may  con- 
trast the  bare  record  of  biographical  facts  afforded  by  an  article  in  an 
encyclopedia  with  a ‘‘  Life  and  Letters  ” which  attempts  to  portray  the 
character  of  its  subject  in  every  detail.  Again,  Scott  and  Stevenson  may 
be  compared  with  George  Eliot  and  Dickens.  A discussion  of  some  of 
Shakspere’s  characters  will  assist  the  pupils  to  comprehend  the  power  of 
imaginative  literature  to  express  the  many-sidedness  of  human  nature. 
If  time  and  opportunity  fail  for  any  of  these  exercises,  a mere  reading 
of  this  section  in  the  class  will  count  for  something. 


152 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  126. 

EXERCISES  IN  NARRATION. 

1.  Tell  a short  true  story  from  history. 

2.  Tell  the  story  of  Washington’s  winter  at  Valley  Forge,  oi 
of  Arnold’s  treason. 

3.  Write  a story  to  be  called  ‘‘  The  Rescue  of  Alexander.” 
Do  not  let  the  identity  of  Alexander  appear  until  you  get  to  the 
culminating  point  of  your  story. 

4.  Bring  to  the  class  some  story  in  which  the  introduction 
describes  the  scene.  Write  the  story  in  your  own  words. 

5.  Select  from  some  story  with  which  you  are  familiar  a brief 
bit  of  narrative  or  conversation.  Copy  the  selection  to  read  in 
the  class,  and  preface  the  extract  with  such  introductory  matter 
as  seems  to  you  suitable.  JMake  the  introduction  as  clear  and 
concise  as  possible. 

6.  Study  some  narrative  poem  with  which  you  are  familiar, 
and  describe  in  writing  the  poet’s  introduction  to  the  story. 

7.  Recite  one  of  ^Esop’s  fables.  If  the  story  is  formally  intro- 
duced, describe  the  introduction.  If  the  writer  has  omitted  the 
introduction,  give  reasons  for  the  omission. 

8.  Read  the  story  of  Paul  Revere’s  Ride.”  Select  from  the 
poem  all  the  portions  in  which  the  action  is  suggested  through 
conversation.  Try  to  tell  the  story  without  introducing  con- 
versation. Observe  what  is  lost. 

9.  Write  an  anecdote  in  which  the  point  of  the  story  is  intro- 
duced in  conversation.  After  writing,  cut  out  the  superfluous 
conversation.  Study  to  make  your  story  as  concise  and  effective 
as  possible. 

10.  Read  Browning’s  ‘‘Incident  of  the  French  Camp,”  observ- 
ing the  effectiveness  of  the  conversation  that  is  introduced.  Find 
some  other  narrative  poem  in  which  the  author  employs  conver- 
sation. Compare  the  two,  giving  special  attention  to  the  i)oint 
of  the  narrative  and  to  the  omission  of  unnecessary  details. 


EXERCISES  IX  XARRATTOX. 


153 


11.  A"ou  have  been  spending  tlie  vacation  with  a friend  who 
lives  in  another  state.  Write  to  your  friends  at  home,  giving  an 
account  of  your  vacation. 

12.  A"ou  have  travelled  by  sea  from  Savannah  to  Boston. 
In  a letter  to  a friend,  tell  some  of  the  incidents  of  your 
passage. 

13.  Write  a letter  to  an  old  gentleman  who  is  a friend  of 
yours,  describing  a day  which  you  have  spent  in  the  scene  of  his 
boyhood. 

14.  Write  to  a child,  relating  an  amusing  incident  which  has 
happened  in  your  experience. 

15.  Find  a piece  of  narrative  in  which  action  is  prominent. 
Read  your  selection  in  the  class,  bringing  out  the  various  ways  in 
which  action  is  described  or  suggested. 

16.  Bring  to  the  class  some  narrative  poem  in  which  action  is 
effectively  represented. 

17.  Prepare  an  outline  of  ‘‘  The  Ancient  Mariner.”  Then  tell 
the  story  from  your  outline. 

18.  Bring  to  the  class  a good  reading  book  which  you  used 
in  the  grammar  school,  and  point  out  examples  of  introduction 
and  conclusion  in  narratives  or  stories. 

19.  Select  a striking  incident  from  some  magazine  article. 
Copy  it  to  present  to  the  class,  writing  a suitable  introduction. 
Your  introduction  should  state  the  source  of  your  selection  and 
should  properly  relate  the  incident  to  the  main  article. 

20.  Examine  a few  well-known  stories,  — Tvanhoe,”  Silas 
Marner,”  one  of  Cooper’s  tales,  some  of  Miss  Jewett’s  or  IMiss 
Wilkins’s  shorter  stories,  or  ‘-Tom  Brown’s  School-Days,”  and 
observe  the  concluding  chapter,  paragraph,  or  sentence  in  each. 
Be  prepared  to  describe  these  conclusions  in  an  oral  report  to  the 
class. 

21.  Select  from  the  writings  of  Thoreau,  ]\Ir.  eJolin  Burroughs, 
Mr.  Ernest  Thompson  Seton,  or  Mr.  William  J.  Long  some  account 
of  the  life  of  an  animal.  Note  particularly  the  details  which  the 
writer  has  observed  and  has  introduced  into  his  account. 


154 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


22.  Report  in  writing  the  plot  of  some  story  which  you  have 
read. 

23.  Read  a single  chapter  of  Dickens’s  Tale  of  Two  Cities.” 
Use  the  chapter  as  an  example  of  action,  of  incident,  and  of 
detail  in  narration. 

24.  Read  one  of  the  fables  in  the  following  list.  Be  prepared 
to  tell  it  in  the  class.  Have  clearly  in  mind  the  outline  of  the 
story  and  its  point.  Use  no  superfluous  words,  but  introduce  any 
details  which  seem  to  you  to  make  your  story  more  vivid. 

The  Dog  and  the  Shadow.  The  Dog  in  the  Manger. 


The  Wolf  and  the  Crane. 
The  Fox  and  the  Crow. 
The  Wolf  and  the  Kid. 
The  Frog  and  the  Ox. 


The  Two  Crabs. 

The  Crow  and  the  Pitcher. 
The  Wind  and  the  Sun. 
The  Milkmaid. 


25.  Rewrite  one  of  the  fables  in  the  list  given  in  Exercise  24 
as  if  you  were  telling  it  to  a child.  Expand  items  in  which  the 
child  might  be  most  interested,  and  introduce  descriptive  words 
and  phrases  to  heighten  the  effect  of  your  story. 

26.  Read  one  of  the  stories  in  Hawthorne’s  ‘‘Wonder-Book” 
or  “ Tanglewood  Tales,”  observing  the  means  by  which  the  author 
secures  the  interest  and  attention  of  children.  Bring  the  book 
to  the  class  and  read  selections  in  which  the  adaptation  of  the 
story  to  the  audience  is  clearly  shown.  How  is  this  adaptation 
brought  about? 

27.  Recite  to  the  class  a short  story  from  some  magazine. 
Prepare  a written  outline  of  the  story  to  guide  you  in  the  telling. 
Omit  subordinate  details,  and  repeat  only  the  i^rincipal  incidents 
of  the  story. 

28.  Recite  a fable  to  the  class,  and  ask  your  classmates  to 
append  a conclusion  in  the  form  of  a moral. 

29.  Tell  the  story  of  an  accident  on  the  railroad,  (1)  as  a 
reporter  would  tell  it;  (2)  as  a child  who  was  injured  might  tell 
it ; (3)  as  a spectator  might  report  it ; (4)  as  a man  who  escaped 
unhurt  might  tell  it. 


EXERCISES  IX  NARRATION. 


155 


30.  A MORNING’S  SPORT. 

Boys  follow  an  organ  grinder,  making  an  uproar  whenever  he 
attempts  to  play. 

Tell  the  story  (1)  from  the  boys’  point  of  view;  (2)  from  that 
of  the  organ  grinder;  (3)  from  that  of  a citizen  who  observed 
the  proceedings  and  sent  the  boys  home. 

31.  MARY’S  MISTAKE. 

Mary  Blake  has  come  to  a city  school  from  her  home  in  the 
country.  She  is  not  accustomed  to  the  routine  of  the  new  school 
and  sometimes  makes  awkward  mistakes. 

The  teacher  asks  Mary  to  take  a note  to  the  principal.  Mary 
attempts  to  leave  the  room,  but  opens  the  closet  door  instead  and 
walks  into  the  closet.  The  pupils  laugh  boisterously,  and  she 
leaves  the  room  in  confusion.  The  teacher  reproves  the  class. 

Tell  the  story  (1)  as  Mary  told  it  to  her  mother;  (2)  as  a 
sympathetic  girl  friend  told  it;  (3)  as  a chivalrous  boy  might 
have  told  it  to  a comrade  after  school. 

32.  THE  RESCUE. 

A boy  of  fourteen  is  fishing  from  a wharf.  A child  of  four 
is  playing  on  the  wharf  and  falls  into  the  water.  The  boy,  who 
is  a good  swimmer,  throws  oft  his  jacket,  plunges  into  the  water, 
and  rescues  the  child. 

Tell  the  story  (1)  as  the  child’s  mother  might  have  told  it; 
(2)  as  if  you  were  a newspaper  reporter ; (3)  in  a modest,  straight- 
forward manner,  as  the  boy  might  tell  it. 


33.  A boy  of  ten  visits  the  zoological  gardens  with  his  father. 
Tell  the  story  of  his  visit  (1)  as  the  father  might  report  it; 
(2)  as  the  boy  might  tell  it ; (3)  as  the  boy’s  mother,  who  stayed 
at  home,  might  rehearse  it. 


156 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


34.  AN  ACCIDENT. 

Two  boys  are  rowing  on  a lake.  Their  boat  capsizes.  One  of 
them  swims  to  the  shore ; the  other  cannot  swim,  but  clings  to 
the  shift  until  he  is  rescued  by  a bystander. 

Describe  the  rescue  (1)  in  the  words  of  the  boy  who  swam 
to  the  shore,  deserting  his  companion ; (2)  as  if  you  were  the 
bystander ; (8)  as  if  you  were  the  father  of  the  boy  who  clung  to 
the'  shift. 

35.  THE  BROKEN  WINDOW. 

Two  boys  are  playing  ball  in  the  street.  Suddenly  their  ball 
crashes  through  a large  plate-glass  window  in  a drug  store.  One 
boy  runs  away  and  hides  behind  a bush.  The  other  boy  walks 
up  to  the  drug  store,  explains  the  accident  to  the  proprietor,  and 
asks  what  he  can  do  to  make  up  for  the  damage. 

Tell  the  story  (1)  as  the  second  boy  might  have  told  it  upon 
his  return  home,  including  the  conversation  between  him  and  the 
proprietor;  (2)  as  the  angry  druggist  might  have  told  it;  (3) 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  boy  who  hid  behind  the  bush. 

36.  THE  LOST  CHILD. 

A little  girl  follows  a procession.  She  is  lost  and  tries  to  find 
her  way  home.  She  is  met  and  recognized  by  the  milkman,  who 
carries  her  with  him  over  his  route,  and  returns  her  to  her  home 
in  the  evening. 

1.  Tell  the  story  as  if  it  happened  in  the  city;  in  the  country. 

2.  Report  the  incident  for  a newspaper. 

8.  Recite  the  incident,  placing  it  in  the  country. 

4.  Tell  it  as  the  milkman  might  rehearse  it. 

5.  Report  the  child’s  version  of  the  story. 

6.  Tell  the  whole  story  as  the  child’s  mother  might  recite  it 
afterwards. 

37.  Pi’epare  to  tell  the  story  of  Phaethon.^  Read  the  story, 
then  make  a careful  outline  for  use  in  telling  it  to  the  class. 

1 See  Gayley’s  “ Classic  Myths  ” or  Bulliuch’s  “ Age  of  Fable.” 


DESCRIPTIONS. 


157 


SECTION  127. 

DESCRIPTION. 

Sections  127-9  contain  three  characteristic  specimens 
of  description.  Dana’s  “Iceberg”  is  an  extract  from 
his  “Two  Years  Before  the  Mast”;  it  is  direct  and 
unpretentious  in  style.  Dickens’s  “ Old  Boat  ” is  a 
good  example  of  the  use  of  details  to  produce  the  effect 
of  reality.  Miss  Mitford’s  “Country  in  Winter”  is 
somewhat  more  formal ; it  expresses  the  feelings  of  a 
cultivated  mind  toward  nature. 

AN  ICEBERG. 

By  R.  H.  Dana. 

This  day  the  sun  rose  fair,  but  it  ran  too  low  in  the  heavens  to 
give  any  heat,  or  thaw  out  our  sails  and  rigging ; yet  the  sight  of 
it  was  pleasant,  and  we  had  a steady  ‘‘  reef-top-sail  breeze  ’’  from 
the  westward.  The  atmosphere,  which  had  previously  been  clear 
and  cold,  for  the  last  few  hours  grew  damp,  and  had  a disagree- 
able, wet  chilliness  in  it;  and  the  man  who  came  from  the  wheel 
said  he  heard  the  captain  tell  ‘‘the  passenger  ’’  that  the  thermom- 
eter had  fallen  several  degrees  since  morning,  which  he  could  not 
account  for  in  any  other  way  than  by  supposing  that  there  must 
be  ice  near  us ; though  such  a thing  had  never  been  heard  of  in 
this  latitude  at  this  season  of  the  year.  At  twelve  o’clock  we 
went  below,  and  had  just  got  through  dinner,  when  the  cook  put 
his  head  down  the  scuttle  and  told  us  to  come  on  deck  and  see 
the  finest  sight  that  we  had  ever  seen. 

“ Where  away,  cook?”  asked  the  first  man  who  was  up. 

“ On  the  larboard  bow.” 

And  there  lay,  floating  on  the  ocean,  several  miles  off,  an 
immense,  irregular  mass,  its  top  and  points  covered  with  snow, 
and  its  centre  of  a deep  indigo  color.  This  was  an  iceberg,  and 


158 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


of  the  largest  size,  as  one  of  our  men  said  who  had  been  in  the 
Northern  ocean.  As  far  as  the  eye  could  reach,  the  sea  in  every 
direction  was  of  a deep  blue  color,  the  waves  running  high  and 
fresh,  and  sparkling  in  the  light,  and  in  the  midst  lay  this  immense 
mountain-island,  its  cavities  and  valleys  thrown  into  deep  shade, 
and  its  points  and  pinnacles  glittering  in  the  sun.  All  hands 
were  soon  on  deck,  looking  at  it,  and  admiring  in  various  ways 
its  beauty  and  grandeur.  But  no  description  can  give  any  idea  of 
the  strangeness,  splendor,  and,  really,  the  sublimity,  of  the  sight. 
Its  great  size,  — for  it  must  have  been  from  two  to  three  miles 
in  circumference  and  several  hundred  feet  in  height ; — its  slow 
motion,  as  its  base  rose  and  sank  in  the  water,  and  its  high  points 
nodded  against  the  clouds;  the  dashing  of  the  waves  upon  it, 
which,  breaking  high  with  foam,  lined  its  base  with  a white  crust ; 
and  the  thundering  sound  of  the  cracking  of  the  mass,  and  the 
breaking  and  tumbling  down  of  huge  pieces ; together  with  its 
nearness  and  approach,  which  added  a slight  element  of  fear,  all 
combined  to  give  to  it  the  character  of  true  sublimity.  The  main 
body  of  the  mass  was,  as  I have  said,  of  an  indigo  color,  its  base 
crusted  with  frozen  foam ; and  as  it  grew  thin  and  transparent 
toward  the  edges  and  top,  its  color  shaded  oh  from  a deep  blue 
to  the  whiteness  of  snow. 

It  seemed  to  be  drifting  slowly  toward  the  north,  so  that  we 
kept  away  and  avoided  it.  It  was  in  sight  all  the  afternoon  ; and 
when  we  got  to  leeward  of  it,  the  wind  died  away,  so  that  we 
lay-to  quite  near  it  for  a great  part  of  the  night.  Unfortunately, 
there  was  no  moon,  but  it  was  a clear  night,  and  we  could  plainly 
mark  the  long,  regular  heaving  of  the  stupendous  mass,  as  its 
edges  moved  slowly  against  the  stars,  now  revealing  them,  and  now 
shutting  them  in.  Several  times  in  our  watch  loud  cracks  were 
heard,  which  sounded  as  though  they  must  have  run  through  the 
whole  length  of  the  iceberg,  and  several  pieces  fell  down  with  a 
thundering  crash,  plunging  heavily  into  the  sea.  Toward  morn- 
ing, a strong  breeze  sprang  up,  and  we  filled  away,  and  left  it 
astern,  and  at  daylight  it  was  out  of  sight. 


DESCRIPTIONS. 


169 


SECTION  128. 

THE  OLD  BOAT.i 
By  Dickens. 

Ham  was  waiting  for  us  at  the  public-house ; and  asked  me 
how  I found  myself,  like  an  old  acquaintance.  I did  not  feel, 
at  first,  that  I knew  him  as  well  as  he  knew  me,  because  he  had 
never  come  to  our  house  since  the  night  I was  born,  and  naturally 
he  had  the  advantage  of  me.  But  our  intimacy  was  much 
advanced  by  his  taking  me  on  his  back  to  carry  me  home.  He 
was,  now,  a huge,  strong  fellow  of  six  feet  high,  broad  in  propor- 
tion, and  round-shouldered ; but  with  a simpering  boy’s  face  and 
curly  light  hair  that  gave  him  quite  a sheepish  look.  He  was 
dressed  in  a canvas  jacket,  and  a pair  of  such  very  stiff  trousers 
that  they  would  have  stood  quite  as  well  alone,  without  any  legs 
in  them.  And  you  could  n’t  so  properly  have  said  he  wore  a hat, 
as  that  he  was  covered  in  a-top,  like  an  old  building,  with  some- 
thing pitchy. 

Ham  carrying  me  on  his  back  and  a small  box  of  ours  under 
his  arm,  and  Peggotty  carrying  another  small  box  of  ours,  we 
turned  down  lanes  bestrewn  with  bits  of  chips  and  little  hillocks 
of  sand,  and  went  past  gas-works,  rope-walks,  boat-builders’  yards, 
shipwrights’  yards,  ship-breakers’  yards,  caulkers’  yards,  riggers’ 
lofts,  smiths’  forges,  and  a great  litter  of  such  places,  until  we 
came  out  upon  the  dull  waste  I had  already  seen  at  a distance ; 
when  Ham  said,  ‘‘Yon ’s  our  house,  Mas’r  Davy  ! ” 

I looked  in  all  directions,  as  far  as  I could  stare  over  the  wil- 
derness, and  away  at  the  sea,  and  away  at  the  river,  but  no  house 
could  I make  out.  There  was  a black  barge,  or  some  other  kind 
of  superannuated  boat,  not  far  off,  high  and  dry  on  the  ground, 
with  an  iron  funnel  sticking  out  of  it  for  a chimney  and  smoking 
very  cosily ; but  nothing  else  in  the  way  of  a habitation  that  was 
visible  to  me. 


1 From  “David  Copperfield.” 


160 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


“ That ’s  not  it  ? said  I.  ‘‘  That  ship-looking  thing  ? ” 

That ’s  it,  Mas’r  Davy,”  returned  Ham. 

If  it  had  been  Aladdin’s  palace,  roc’s  egg  and  all,  I suppose  I 
could  not  have  been  more  charmed  with  the  romantic  idea  of  liv- 
ing in  it.  There  was  a delightful  door  cut  in  the  side,  and  it  was 
roofed  in,  and  there  were  little  windows  in  it ; but  the  wonderful 
charm  of  it  was,  that  it  was  a real  boat  which  had  no  doubt  been 
upon  the  water  hundreds  of  times,  and  which  had  never  been 
intended  to  be  lived  in,  on  dry  land.  That  was  the  captivation 
of  it  to  me.  If  it  had  ever  been  meant  to  be  lived  in,  I might 
have  thought  it  small,  or  inconvenient,  or  lonely  ; but  never  hav- 
ing been  designed  for  any  such  use,  it  became  a perfect  abode. 

It  was  beautifully  clean  inside,  and  as  tidy  as  possible.  There 
was  a table,  and  a Dutch  clock,  and  a chest  of  drawers,  and  on 
the  chest  of  drawers  there  was  a tea-tray  with  a painting  on  it  of 
a lady  with  a parasol,  taking  a walk  with  a military-looking  child 
who  was  trundling  a hoop.  The  tray  was  kept  from  tumbling 
down,  by  a Bible ; and  the  tray,  if  it  had  tumbled  down,  would 
have  smashed  a quantity  of  cups  and  saucers  and  a teapot  that 
were  grouped  around  the  book.  On  the  walls  there  were  some 
common  colored  pictures,  framed  and  glazed,  of  scripture  sub- 
jects ; such  as  I have  never  seen  since  in  the  hands  of  pedlars, 
without  seeing  the  whole  interior  of  Peggotty’s  brother’s  house 
again,  at  one  view.  Abraham  in  red  going  to  sacrifice  Isaac  in 
blue,  and  Daniel  in  yellow  cast  into  a den  of  green  lions,  were  the 
most  prominent  of  these.  Over  the  little  mantel-shelf,  was  a pic- 
ture of  the  Sarah  Jane  lugger,^  built  at  Sunderland,  with  a real 
little  wooden  stern  stuck  on  to  it;  a work  of  art,  combining 
composition  ^ with  carpentry,  which  I considered  to  be  one  of  the 
most  enviable  possessions  that  the  world  could  afford.  There 
were  some  hooks  in  the  beams  of  the  ceiling,  the  use  of  which  I 
did  not  divine  then;  and  some  lockers  and  boxes  and  conven- 
iences of  that  sort,  which  served  for  seats  and  eked  out  the  chairs. 

1 A kind  of  sailing  vessel. 

2 In  the  artist’s  sense  (see  the  Dietionary). 


DESCRIPTIONS. 


161 


SECTION  129. 

THE  COUNTRY  IN  WINTER.  i 
By  Miss  Mitford. 

Now  we  have  reached  the  trees,  — the  beautiful  trees!  never 
so  beautiful  as  to-day.  Imagine  the  effect  of  a straight  and 
regular  double  avenue  of  oaks,  nearly  a mile  long,  arching  over- 
head, and  closing  into  perspective  like  the  roof  and  columns  of  a 
cathedral,  every  tree  and  branch  incrusted  with  the  bright  and 
delicate  congelation  of  hoar-frost,  white  and  pure  as  snow,  deli- 
cate and  defined  as  carved  ivory.  How  beautiful  it  is,  how’ 
uniform,  how  various,  how  filling,  how  satiating  to  the  eye  and 
to  the  mind  — above  all,  how  melancholy  ! There  is  a thrilling 
awfulness,  an  intense  feeling  of  simple  power  in  that  naked  and 
colorless  beauty,  which  falls  on  the  earth  like  the  thoughts  of 
death  — death  pure,  and  glorious,  and  smiling,  — but  still  death. 
Sculpture  has  always  the  same  effect  on  my  imagination,  and 
painting  never.  Color  is  life. 

We  are  now  at  the  end  of  this  magnificent  avenue,  and  at  the 
top  of  a steep  eminence  commanding  a wide  view  over  four 
counties  — a landscape  of  snow.  A deep  lane  leads  abruptly 
down  the  hill;  a mere  narrow  cart-track,  sinking  between  high 
banks  clothed  with  fern  and  furze  and  low  broom,  crowned  with 
luxuriant  hedgerows,  and  famous  for  their  summer  smell  of  thyme. 
How  lovely  these  banks  are  now  — the  tall  weeds  and  the  gorse 
fixed  and  stiffened  in  the  hoar-frost,  which  fringes  round  the 
bright  prickly  holly,  the  pendent  foliage  of  the  bramble,  and  the 
deep  orange  leaves  of  the  pollard  oaks  I O,  this  is  rime  in  its 
loveliest  form  I And  there  is  still  a berry  here  and  there  on  the 
holly,  “ blushing  in  its  natural  coral  ” through  the  delicate  tracery, 
still  a stray  hip  or  haw  for  the  birds,  who  abound  here  always. 

The  poor  birds,  how  tame  they  are,  how  sadly  tame  I There 
is  the  beautiful  and  rare  crested  wren,  that  shadow  of  a bird,”  as 


1 From  “ Our  Village.” 


162 


THE  MOTHER  TOKGUE. 


White  of  Selborne  calls  it,  perched  in  the  middle  of  the  hedge, 
nestling  as  it  were  amongst  the  cold  bare  boughs,  seeking,  poor 
pretty  thing,  for  the  warmth  it  will  not  find.  And  there,  farther 
on,  just  under  the  bank,  by  the  slender  runlet,  which  still  trickles 
between  its  transparent  fantastic  margin  of  thin  ice,  as  if  it  were 
a thing  of  life,  — there,  with  a swift,  scudding  motion,  flits,  in 
short  low  flights,  the  gorgeous  kingfisher,  its  magnificent  plumage 
of  scarlet  and  blue  flashing  in  the  sun,  like  the  glories  of  some 
tropical  bird.  He  is  come  for  water  to  this  little  spring  by  the 
hillside,  — water  which  even  his  long  bill  and  slender  head  can 
hardly  reach,  so  nearly  do  the  fantastic  forms  of  those  garland- 
like  icy  margins  meet  over  the  tiny  stream  beneath.  It  is  rarely 
that  one  sees  the  shy  beauty  so  close  or  so  long ; and  it  is  pleasant 
to  see  him  in  the  grace  and  beauty  of  his  natural  liberty,  the 
only  way  to  look  at  a bird. 

We  used,  before  we  lived  in  a street,  to  fix  a little  board  out- 
side the  parlor  window,  and  cover  it  with  bread  crumbs  in  the 
hard  weather.  It  was  quite  delightful  to  see  the  pretty  things 
come  and  feed,  to  conquer  their  shyness,  and  do  away  their  mis- 
trust. First  came  the  more  social  tribes,  ^‘the  robin  redbreast 
and  the  wren,”  cautiously,  suspiciously,  picking  up  a crumb  on 
the  wing,  with  the  little  keen  bright  eye  fixed  on  the  window; 
then  they  would  stop  for  two  pecks ; then  stay  till  they  were 
satisfied.  The  shyer  birds,  tamed  by  their  example,  came  next ; 
and  at  last  one  saucy  fellow  of  a blackbird  — a sad  glutton,  he 
would  clear  the  board  in  two  minutes,  — used  to  tap  his  bill 
against  the  window  for  more.  How  we  loved  the  fearless  confi- 
dence of  that  fine,  frank-hearted  creature ! And  surely  he  loved 
us.  I wonder  the  practice  is  not  more  general.  May  ! ^ May  ! 
naughty  May  ! ” she  has  frightened  away  the  kingfisher ; and  now, 
in  her  coaxing  penitence,  she  is  covering  me  with  snow.  Come, 
pretty  May  ! it  is  time  to  go  home.” 

Observe  the  use  of  the  present  tense  in  this  descrip- 
tion. 

1 May  was  the  writer’s  pet  greyhound. 


DESCRIPTION  AND  EXPLANATION. 


163 


SECTION  130. 

DESCRIPTION  AND  EXPLANATION. 

Description,  in  the  larger  sense,  includes  two  distinct 
kinds  of  composition. 

The  description  of  a machine,  for  instance,  usually 
consists  in  an  exact  account  of  its  various  parts  and  of 
the  way  in  which  they  are  put  together.  The  botanical 
description  of  a plant  is  of  much  the  same  kind.  Simi- 
larly, we  can  so  describe  a house  by  giving  its  dimen- 
sions, etc.,  that  the  reader  may  draw  an  accurate  plan 
of  the  building.  All  such  description  is,  you  will 
notice,  explanatory ; its  sole  object  is  to  make  the  reader 
understand. 

Contrast  the  following  description  of  a night  scene 
in  London : — 

Black  night  lay  over  the  city,  and  silence;  the  river  flowed 
unseen  through  the  darkness ; but  a thousand  golden  points  of  fire 
mapped  out  the  lines  of  the  Embankment  and  the  long  curves  of 
the  distant  bridges.  The  infrequent  sounds  that  could  be  heard 
were  strangely  distinct,  even  when  they  were  faint  and  remote. 
There  was  a slight  rustling  of  wind  in  the  trees  below  the 
window.  — William  Black. 

We  feel  the  difference  instantly.  On  what  does  it 
depend?  The  answer  is,  “On  the  different  purpose  of  the 
writer.”  In  descriptions  of  the  first  kind,  the  writer’s 
object  is,  as  we  have  seen,  to  explain ; he  appeals  to  your 
understanding.  In  those  of  the  second  kind,  his  object  is 
to  call  up  in  your  mind  the  same  picture  that  he  has  in 
his  own.  He  appeals  not  so  much  to  your  understanding 
as  to  your  imagination.  In  the  one  case  the  writer  tries 


164 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


to  make  you  understand ; in  the  other,  he  tries  to  make 
you  see  and  feel. 

This  distinction  is  of  much  practical  importance ; for 
the  methods  followed  in  the  two  kinds  of  description 
differ  in  many  particulars.  For  convenience  we  shall 
hereafter  call  the  first  kind  explanation,  and  shall  confine 
the  term  description  to  the  second.^ 

Leaving  explanation  to  be  discussed  by-and-by,  we 
shall  now  pass  to  the  study  of  description  in  the  more 
limited  sense. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — The  pupil  should  not  infer  that  the  use  of  the 
term  description  in  the  larger  sense  is  incorrect  merely  because  it  is  con- 
venient to  limit  the  application  of  the  word  in  the  present  discussion. 
Many  terms  are  well  established  in  both  a general  and  a particular 
meaning.  Care  should  also  be  taken  not  to  force  the  distinction  set  forth 
in  this  section.  There  is  a continuous  line  from  explanation  pure  and 
simple  to  the  most  highly  wrought  poetical  description.  Compare  the  Note 
to  the  Teacher  on  page  123. 


SECTION  131. 

PICTURES  AND  DESCRIPTIONS. 

Suppose  you  wish  to  make  a friend  see,  in  his  mind’s 
eye,  some  place  or  object  that  has  interested  you,  and 
to  make  him  realize  the  impression  that  it  has  produced 
upon  your  own  mind  and  feelings. 

There  are  two  ways  of  doing  this  : (1)  by  means  of  a 
picture  ; (2)  by  means  of  words,  that  is,  by  a description. 
Let  us  study  these  two  ways  and  consider  what  advan- 
tages each  has  over  the  other. 


1 Observe  that  all  scientific  and  technical  description  belongs  to  the 
first  class ; all  “ literary  ” and  poetical  descri]3tion  to  the  second. 


PICTURES  AND  DESCRIPTIONS. 


165 


As  I look  out  of  the  window,  I see  a number  of  trees,  a black- 
smith’s shop,  a cart,  a railroad  station  painted  red,  a patch  of 
blue  sky,  a little  strip  of  river,  also  blue,  two  piles  of  lumber,  and 
a great  many  other  objects,  — all  without  moving  my  eyes.  These 
objects  might  all  be  put  into  a picture  so  that  you  could  see  them, 
as  I do,  all  together  at  the  same  instant. 

Further,  the  objects  which  I see  from  the  window  have  very 
different  outlines.  Their  colors,  too,  are  all  different.  One  pile 
of  lumber  has  been  exposed  to  the  weather  longer  than  the  other ; 
the  blue  of  the  river  differs  from  the  blue  of  the  sky ; and  in  the 
trees  there  are  many  shades  of  green. 

All  these  objects  might  be  put  into  a painting,  with 
outlines  as  sharp  and  colors  as  distinct  as  they  have 
in  the  reality. 

Suppose,  now,  I should  try  to  describe  this  scene  from 
the  window  in  words.  In  a painting,  you  could  see  all 
the  objects  at  the  same  instant  with  a single  glance  of 
the  eyes.  In  my  description,  I should  have  to  string  the 
details  along  one  after  the  other  so  that  the  last  object 
mentioned  might  not  be  reached  until  several  minutes 
after  the  first. 

Here,  then,  is  one  striking  difference  between  painting 
and  description. 

Furthermore,  my  description  would  give  you  a very 
imperfect  idea  of  the  outlines  of  the  various  objects. 
So  long  as  the  lines  are  straight,  I should  not  have 
much  difficulty.  But  when  I came  to  the  irregular 
curves  which  a natural  object  has,  I could  find  no  words 
to  describe  them  adequately.  The  same  is  true  of 
colors. 

How  can  I express,  for  example,  the  difference 
between  the  green  of  an  oak  and  that  of  an  elm. 


166 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


or  between  the  green  of  a pine  and  that  of  a spruce? 
How  can  I distinguish  the  blue  in  the  sky  from  the 
blue  on  the  river? 

In  some  respects,  then,  words  cannot  compare  in 
effectiveness  with  pictures.  The  mere  outlines  in  a 
Greek  vase  painting  will  give  you  a more  immediate 
appreciation  of  the  grace  and  beauty  of  the  human  form 
than  pages  of  descriptive  writing.  A silhouette  in  black 
paper  will  enable  you  to  recognize  a stranger  more 
quickly  than  the  most  elaborate  description  in  words. 

On  the  other  hand,  words  have  quite  as  many  advan- 
tages on  their  side.  For  instance,  what  can  a picture 
tell  you  about  wind  or  heat,  about  sound  or  smell,  about 
motion,  about  the  feeling  of  roughness  or  moisture? 
Nothing  directly ; it  can  only  suggest. 

It  may  indicate  that  the  wind  blows  by  showing  the 
water  ruffled  or  the  white  backs  of  the  leaves  turned 
up.  It  can  indicate  heat  still  less  effectively,  as,  for 
example,  by  means  of  very  black  and  sharply  defined 
shadows  on  a white  ground,  to  suggest  sunlight.  And 
when  you  come  to  sound  or  smell  or  the  sense  of  feeling, 
a picture  can  only  hint  at  the  facts  in  a roundabout 
way,  — as  by  putting  in  a man  in  a listening  attitude, 
or  a girl  smelling  a rose,  or  a boy  shivering  with  cold 
on  the  ice.  Think  how  many  pictures  you  have  seen 
which  meant  nothing  to  you  because  you  did  not  know 
the  story  beforehand.  A picture  can  represent  only  a 
single  instant  in  the  course  of  a story;  it  cannot  tell 
what  went  before  or  what  happened  afterward. 

With  words,  however,  you  can  describe  all  these 
things.  If  you  cannot  make  your  reader  see  the  exact 
shape  of  an  object,  you  can  give  him  a much  clearer 


PICTURES  AND  DESCRIPTIONS, 


1G7 


idea  of  motion  and  sound  and  feeling  than  he  can  get 
from  the  most  accurate  photograph  or  the  most  skilfully 
painted  picture. 

Read  George  Eliot’s  description  of  ‘‘The  Valley  of 
the  Floss  ” (p.  177),  and  notice  the  many  details  it 
contains  which  a picture  could  not  portray. 

In  the  first  paragraph  we  have  the  Floss  hurrying  on,  the  tide 
rushing  to  meet  it,  the  fresh-scented  pine-j)lanks  home  along,  the 
transient  glance ; in  the  second  paragraph,  the  lively  current,  the 
changing  wavelets,  the  low,  placid  voice  of  the  river.  If  yon  should 
cut  out  these  details,  the  description  would  be  tame  and  lifeless. 
Indeed,  Dana  points  out,  after  describing  the  iceberg,  how  help- 
less a painter  would  be  to  express  its  true  effect. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — This  section  should  be  read  aloud  in  the  class  room 
and  discussed  by  teacher  and  pupils.  The  distinction  between  descriptions 
and  pictures  is  of  capital  importance  in  both  literature  and  art  and  is 
also  of  much  practical  consequence  for  composition.  It  is  easily  grasped 
by  young  students,  and  a proper  comprehension  of  its  bearings  will  do 
much  to  stimulate  interest  in  literature  and  in  the  world  about  us.  The 
distinction  may  be  enforced  by  a simple  exercise:  the  pupil  may  write 
down  the  sensations  of  which  he  is  conscious  at  a given  time,  and  then 
may  designate  (1)  those  that  might  go  into  a painting,  and  (2)  those  that 
may  be  portrayed  better  by  means  of  words.  Such  an  experiment  will  be 
found  very  instructive. 


SECTION  132. 

Our  study  in  Section  131  has  shown  us  that  the 
chief  advantage  of  a description  in  comparison  with  a 
picture,  lies  in  the  power  of  words  to  express  motion  and 
a great  variety  of  sensations.  This  may  be  further  illus- 
trated by  a passage  from  Stevenson,  in  which  the 
difference  between  Scotland  and  England  is  vividly 
portrayed : — 


168 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


We  have  spoken  of  the  material  conditions,  nor  need  mucli 
more  be  said  of  these  ; of  the  land  lying  everywhere  more  exposed, 
of  the  wind  always  louder  and  bleaker,  of  the  black  roaring  win- 
ters, of  the  gloom  of  high-lying,  old  stone  cities  imminent  on  the 
windy  seaboard  ; compared  with  the  level  streets,  the  warm  col- 
oring of  the  brick,  the  domestic  quaintness  of  the  architecture, 
among  which  English  children  begin  to  grow  up  and  come  to 
themselves  in  life. 

Observe  the  variety  of  sensations  expressed  in  this 
brief  passage  by  the  words  exposed^  louder^  hleaker^ 
roaring^  windy^  warm. 

Read  Miss  Mitford’s  description  of  ‘‘  The  Country  in 
Winter  ” (pp.  161-62),  and  see  how  many  words  you 
can  find  that  indicate  motion  or  sensation. 

SECTION  133. 

Study  the  following  extract  from  Cowper’s  “Winter 
Walk  at  Noon.” 

The  night  was  winter  in  his  roughest  mood. 

The  morning  sharp  and  clear.  But  now  at  noon. 

Upon  the  southern  side  of  the  slant  hills. 

And  where  the  woods  fence  off  the  northern  blast. 

The  season  smiles,  resigning  all  its  rage. 

And  has  the  warmth  of  May.  The  vault  is  blue 
Without  a cloud,  and  white  without  a speck 
The  dazzling  splendor  of  the  scene  below. 

Again  the  harmony  comes  o’er  the  vale. 

And  through  the  trees  I view  the  embattled  tow^er 
Whence  all  the  music.  I again  perceive 
The  soothing  influence  of  the  w^afted  strains. 

And  settle  in  soft  musings  as  I tread 

The  walk,  still  verdant,  under  oaks  and  elms. 

Whose  outspread  branches  overarch  the  glade. 


ADVANTAGES  OF  DESCRIPTION. 


169 


The  roof,  though  movable  through  all  its  length 
As  the  wind  sways  it,  has  yet  well  sufficed, 

And,  intercepting  in  their  silent  fall 
The  frequent  flakes,  has  kept  a path  for  me. 

No  noise  is  here,  or  none  that  hinders  thought. 

The  redbreast  warbles  still,  but  is  content 
With  slender  notes,  and  more  than  half  suppressed. 
Pleased  with  his  solitude,  and  flitting  light 
From  spray  to  spray,  where’er  he  rests  he  shakes 
From  many  a twig  the  pendent  drops  of  ice. 

That  tinkle  in  the  withered  leaves  below. 

Observe  how  many  things  the  poet  mentions  that  a 
painter  could  not  portray,  and  note  how  much  these 
contribute  to  the  vividness  of  the  description. 

Note  also  the  words  that  Cowper  uses  in  expressing 
or  suggesting  these  things  or  ideas.  To  what  classes 
do  the  words  belong? 

SECTION  134. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  DESCRIPTION. 

The  secret  of  writing  a good  description  is  revealed 
by  our  study  of  the  examples  in  Sections  132  and  133. 

A good  writer  is  not  content  to  include  in  his  descrip- 
tion merely  such  things  as  would  go  into  a picture. 
He  takes  care  to  introduce  objects  in  motion,  particu- 
larly living  creatures.  Besides  what  can  be  seen,  he 
brings  in  sounds,  bodily  feelings,  and  other  matters  of 
sensation.  Thus  we  get  the  full  impression  that  the 
scene  or  object  makes  upon  the  writer. 

A picture  appeals  primarily  to  the  sight.  A descrip- 
tion may  appeal  to  the  other  senses  as  well. 


170 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


In  real  life  some  of  the  most  vivid  associations  we 
have  are  called  up  by  other  senses  than  that  of  sight. 
You  can  test  this  by  a simple  experiment. 

Think  of  the  smell  of  the  moist  earth  in  spring,  or  of  lumber, 
or  of  seaweed,  or  of  the  queer  fishy  odor  of  fresh  water,  and  see 
if  it  does  not  bring  vividly  before  your  mind  some  place  where 
you  have  been  or  some  experience  that  you  have  had. 

Specific  sensations,  then,  have  the  power  of  calling 
up,  in  the  minds  of  your  readers,  scenes,  objects,  or 
experiences  with  which  they  have  been  associated  in 
the  past.  Do  not  neglect  these  sensations  in  your 
descriptive  writing. 


SECTION  135. 

Read  aloud  the  following  sonnet  by  Wordsworth.^ 

UPON  WESTMINSTER  BRIDGE. 

Earth  has  not  anything  to  show  more  fair: 

Dull  would  he  be  of  soul  who  could  pass  by 
A sight  so  touching  in  its  majesty : 

This  city  now  doth,  like  a garment,  wear 
The  beauty  of  the  morning ; silent,  bare, 

Ships,  towers,  domes,  theatres,  and  temples  lie 
Open  unto  the  fields,  and  to  the  sky. 

All  bright  and  glittering  in  the  smokeless  air. 

Never  did  sun  more  beautifully  steep 
In  his  first  splendor,  valley,  rock,  or  hill; 

Ne’er  saw  I,  never  felt,  a calm  so  deep ! 

The  river  glideth  at  his  own  sweet  will : 

Dear  God ! the  very  houses  seem  asleep ; 

And  all  that  mighty  heart  is  lying  still ! 

1 For  the  structure  of  a sonnet,  see  Appendix. 


DESCRIPTION. 


171 


Study  the  description,  using  the  following  outline : — 

1.  What  has  Wordsworth  included  in  the  view  from  the  bridge? 

2.  Are  sounds  suggested  in  the  description? 

3.  Enumerate  the  details  in  the  description. 

4.  Study  the  opening  sentence.  How  does  it  prepare  you  to 
see  the  picture  ? 

5.  What  feeling  does  the  poem  excite  in  you? 

6.  What  does  the  sonnet  show  you  about  the  poet  ? 

SECTION  136. 

Read  aloud  the  following  extract  from  Matthew 
Arnold’s  Dover  Beach.” 

The  sea  is  calm  to-night ; 

The  tide  is  full;  the  moon  lies  fair 
Upon  the  Straits ; on  the  French  coast  the  light 
Gleams,  and  is  gone ; the  cliffs  of  England  stand, 
Glimmering  and  vast,  out  in  the  tranquil  bay. 

Come  to  the  window  : sweet  is  the  night  air ! 

Only  from  the  long  line  of  spray 

Where  the  ebb  meets  the  moon-blanched  sand. 

Listen  ! you  hear  the  grating  roar 

Of  pebbles  which  the  waves  suck  back,  and  fling, 

At  their  return,  up  the  high  strand. 

Begin  and  cease,  and  then  again  begin. 

With  tremulous  cadence  slow,  and  bring 
The  eternal  note  of  sadness  in. 

Study  the  description,  following  the  plan  outlined  in 
Section  135. 

What  is  the  effect  of  ‘‘  Come  to  the  window  ”? 

What  effect  has  the  writer  secured  by  using  the  imperative 
verb  listen  ? 

What  is  the  time  of  the  description  ? 

What  is  the  point  of  view  of  the  writer  ? 


172 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  137. 

1.  Describe  a traveller,  overburdened  with  bags  and  parcels, 
arriving  at  the  railway  station  just  too  late  for  his  train. 

2.  The  fire  alarm  sounds  in  the  night.  You  listen  and  dis- 
cover that  the  fire  is  near  your  own  house.  You  rise,  dress,  and 
hasten  to  the  scene.  Describe  what  you  find  there. 

3.  You  have  been  searching  for  a suitable  place  in  which  to 
build  a summer  camp.  Describe  the  site  which  you  finally  select. 
Do  not  forget  that  the  situation  should  be  pleasant  as  well  as 
convenient. 

4.  Visit  some  manufactory  and  describe  the  work  which  you 
see  there. 

5.  Study  Tennyson’s  ‘‘Song  of  the  Brook”;  then  close  your 
book  and  describe  the  scene  which  the  poet  describes. 


SECTION  138. 

DESCEIPTION  OF  A PLACE. 

Most  of  us  use  description  more  frequently  in  letter- 
writing than  in  any  other  kind  of  composition.  We 
often  wish  to  give  a friend  at  a distance  some  idea  of 
our  own  town  or  neighborhood ; and,  when  away  from 
home,  we  are  always  eager  to  let  our  families  know 
what  our  new  surroundings  are  like.  Thus  skill  in 
description  is  of  constant  utility  in  our  everyday  life. 

The  great  Dr.  Arnold  of  Rugby  once  wrote  as  follows 
to  one  of  his  old  pupils,  who  was  living  in  Tasmania : — 

Will  you  describe  the  general  aspect  of  the  country  round 
Hobart’s  Town?  To  this  day  I never  could  meet  with  a descrip- 
tion of  the  common  face  of  the  country  about  New  York,  or 
Boston,  or  Philadelphia,  and  therefore  I have  no  distinct  idea  of 
it.  Is  your  country  plain  or  undulating;  are  your  valleys  deep 


TIME  IN  DESCRIPTIONS. 


173 


or  shallow,  — curving,  or  with  steep  sides  and  flat  bottoms?  Are 
your  fields  large  or  small,  parted  I)y  hedges  or  stone  walls,  with 
single  trees  about  them,  or  patches  of  wood  here  and  there?  Are 
there  many  scattered  houses,  and  what  are  they  built  of,  — brick, 
wood,  or  stone  ? And  what  are  the  hills  and  streams  like,  — 
ridges,  or  with  waving  summits?  with  plain  sides,  or  indented 
with  combes  ? full  of  springs  or  dry  ? And  what  is  their  geology  ? 
I can  better  fancy  the  actors  when  I have  got  a lively  notion  of 
the  scene  in  which  they  are  acting. 

This  letter  sums  up  very  well  the  things  that  you 
would  like  to  know  about  a place  where  one  of  your 
friends  happened  to  be  living. 

Describe  your  own  neighborhood  as  if  you  were 
writing  a letter  in  reply  to  Dr.  Arnold’s  request. 

SECTION  139. 

TIME  IN  DESCRIPTIONS. 

To  make  your  description  vivid,  you  must  often  put 
it  on  a definite  day  or  even  at  a particular  time  of  the  day. 

Read  the  following  descriptions  with  this  point  in 
view. 

And  so  we  began  our  journey ; sadly,  under  dripping  trees  and 
a leaden  sky.  The  country  we  had  to  traverse  was  the  same  I 
had  trodden  on  the  last  day  of  my  march  southwards,  but  the 
passing  of  a month  had  changed  the  face  of  everything.  Green 
dells,  where  springs  welling  out  of  the  chalk  had  made  of  the 
leafy  bottom  a fairies’  home,  strewn  with  mosses,  — these  were 
now  swamps  into  which  our  horses  sank  to  the  fetlock.  Sunny 
brows,  whence  I had  viewed  the  champaign  and  traced  my  for- 
ward path,  had  become  bare,  windswept  ridges.  The  beech 
woods,  which  had  glowed  with  ruddy  light,  were  naked  now; 


174 


THE  MOTHER  TO^^GUE. 


mere  black  trunks  and  rigid  arms  pointing  to  heaven.  An  earthy 
smell  filled  the  air : a hundred  paces  away  a wall  of  mist  closed 
the  view.  We  plodded  on  sadly,  up  hill  and  down  hill ; now 
fording  brooks  already  stained  in  the  flood  water,  now  crossing 
barren  heaths.  — Weyman^ 

AN  AUGUST  DAY  IN  MARSEILLES.^ 

By  Dickens. 

Thirty  years  ago,  Marseilles  lay  in  the  burning  sun  one  day. 

A blazing  sun  upon  a fierce  August  day  was  no  greater  rarity  in 
southern  France  then,  than  at  any  other  time,  before  or  since. 
Everything  in  Marseilles,  and  about  Marseilles,  had  stared  at  the 
fervid  sky,  and  been  stared  at  in  return,  until  a staring  habit  had 
become  universal  there.  Strangers  were  stared  out  of  counte- 
nance by  staring  white  houses,  staring  white  walls,  staring  white 
streets,  staring  tracts  of  arid  road,  staring  hills  from  which  ver- 
dure was  burnt  away.  The  only  things  to  be  seen  not  fixedly 
staring  and  glaring  were  the  vines  drooping  under  their  load  of 
grapes.  These  did  occasionally  wink  a little,  as  the  hot  air 
barely  moved  their  faint  leaves. 

There  was  no  wind  to  make  a ripple  on  the  foul  water  within 
the  harbor,  or  on  the  beautiful  sea  without.  The  line  of  demar- 
cation between  the  two  colors,  black  and  blue,  showed  the  point 
which  the  pure  sea  would  not  pass  ; but  it  lay  as  quiet  as  the 
abominable  pool,  with  which  it  never  mixed.  Boats  without 
awnings  were  too  hot  to  touch  ; ships  blistered  at  their  moorings ; 
the  stones  of  the  quays  had  not  cooled,  night  or  day,  for  months. 
Hindoos,  Russians,  Chinese,  Spaniards,  Portuguese,  Englishmen, 
Frenchmen,  Genoese,  Neapolitans,  Venetians,  Greeks,  Turks, 
descendants  from  all  the  builders  of  Babel,  come  to  trade  at 
Marseilles,  sought  the  shade  alike,  — taking  refuge  in  any  hiding- 
place  from  a sea  too  intensely  blue  to  be  looked  at,  and  a sky  of 
purple,  set  with  one  great  flaming  jewel  of  fire. 

1 From  “ Under  the  Red  Robe.’’  2 From  “ Little  Dorrit.” 


TIME  DESCRIPTIONS. 


175 


The  universal  stare  made  the  eyes  ache.  Towards  the  distant 
blue  of  Italian  coast,  indeed,  it  was  a little  relieved  by  light 
clouds  of  mist,  slowly  rising  from  the  evaporation  of  the  sea,  but 
it  softened  nowhere  else.  Far  away  the  staring  roads,  deep  in 
dust,  stared  from  the  hillside,  stared  from  the  hollow,  stared 
from  the  interminable  plain.  Far  away  the  dusty  vines  over- 
hanging wayside  cottages,  and  the  monotonous  wayside  avenues 
of  parched  trees  without  shade,  drooped  beneath  the  stare  of 
earth  and  sky.  So  did  the  horses  with  drowsy  bells,  in  long  files 
of  carts,  creeping  slowly  towards  the  interior ; so  did  their  recum- 
bent drivers,  when  they  were  awake,  which  rarely  happened ; so 
did  the  exhausted  laborers  in  the  fields.  Everything  that  lived 
or  grew  was  oppressed  by  the  glare  ; except  the  lizard,  passing 
swiftly  over  rough  stone  walls,  and  cicala,  chirping  his  dry  hot 
chirp,  like  a rattle.  The  very  dust  was  scorched  brown,  and 
something  quivered  in  the  atmosphere  as  if  the  air  itself  were 
panting. 

Blinds,  shutters,  curtains,  awnings,  were  all  closed  and  drawn 
to  keep  out  the  stare.  Grant  it  but  a chink  or  keyhole,  and  it 
shot  in  like  a white-hot  arrow. 

Both  of  these  descriptions  are  remarkably  vivid. 
Their  vividness,  you  will  notice,  comes  in  part  from  the 
authors’  care  in  fixing  the  time.  You  learn  not  merely 
how  the  place  looks  and  what  impressions  it  makes, 
but  what  its  appearance  is  and  what  these  impressions 
are  at  a point  of  time,  which  is  carefully  defined. 

The  importance  of  fixing  the  time  in  descriptions  is  particu- 
larly well  illustrated  in  the  first  passage.  Here  the  whole  place 
seems  to  change  with  the  season  and  the  weather,  and  the  effect 
that  it  produces  on  your  feelings  changes  as  well. 

The  character  of  your  description,  then,  may  depend 
on  the  season  or  the  weather  in  which  you  depict  the 
scene.  Sunlight,  clouds,  rain,  sunrise  or  sunset,  crisp 


176 


THE  MOTHER  TQNGUE. 


air  or  muggy,  calm  or  high  wind  — these  are  influences 
which  affect  your  feelings  strongly  and  hence  modify 
the  impressions  which  you  get  of  a place  or  a landscape. 
They  should  not  be  neglected,  therefore,  if  you  wish  to 
reproduce  those  feelings  in  a description. 

Notice  the  effectiveness  of  the  cold  night  in  the  fol- 
lowing description  of  the  chapel  from  Keats’s  “ Eve  of 
Saint  Agnes  ” : — 


His  prayer  he  saith,  this  patient  holy  man ; 

Then  takes  his  lamp,  and  riseth  from  his  knees, 

And  back  returneth,  meagre,  barefoot,  wan. 

Along  the  chapel  aisle  by  slow  degrees : 

The  sculptured  dead,  on  each  side,  seem  to  freeze, 
Imprisoned  in  black,  purgatorial  rails : 

Knights,  ladies,  praying  in  dumb  oratories. 

He  passeth  by ; and  his  weak  spirit  fails 
To  think  how  they  may  ache  in  icy  hoods  and  mails. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — The  principle  of  this  section  should  be  further 
enforced  by  referring  the  pupils  to  descriptions  in  the  pieces  of  literature 
which  they  are  studying.  They  should  also  be  encouraged  to  find  exam- 
ples for  themselves.  Compare  Dana’s  “ Iceberg  ” (p.  157)  and  the  extracts 
from  Cowper  (p.  168)  and  Matthew  Arnold  (p.  171). 


SECTION  140. 

After  reading  the  description  of  Marseilles  in  August 
(Section  139),  write  a description  of  that  city  as  you 
imagine  it  might  appear  on  a cold,  drizzly  day  in 
March. 

Note  the  repetition  of  stare  in  the  original  passage.  Do  not 
try  to  imitate  tliis.  Such  devices  are  best  left  to  the  great 
writers,  who  know  how  to  employ  them. 


TIME  TX  DESCRTPTIOXS. 


177 


SECTION  141. 

The  following  description  illustrates  the  principle 
set  forth  in  Section  139.  The  time  of  year  and  the 
weather  are  carefully  indicated. 

THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  FLOSS.^ 

By  George  Eliot. 

A wide  plain,  where  the  broadening  Floss  hurries  on  between 
its  green  banks  to  the  sea,  and  the  loving  tide,  rushing  to  meet 
it,  checks  its  passage  with  an  impetuous  embrace.  On  this 
mighty  tide  the  black  ships,  laden  with  the  fresh-scented  fir- 
planks,  with  rounded  sacks  of  oil-bearing  seed,  or  with  the  dark 
glitter  of  coal,  are  borne  along  to  the  town  of  St.  Ogg's,  which 
shows  its  aged,  fluted  red  roofs  and  the  broad  gables  of  its 
wharves  between  the  low,  wooded  hill  and  the  brink,  tingeing  the 
water  with  a soft  purple  hue  under  the  transient  glance  of  this 
February  sun. 

Far  away  on  each  hand  stretch  the  rich  pastures  and  the 
patches  of  dark  earth,  made  ready  for  the  seed  of  broad-leaved 
green  crops,  or  touched  already  with  the  tint  of  the  tender-bladed 
autumn-sown  corn.  There  is  a remnant  still  of  the  last  year’s 
golden  clusters  of  beehive  ricks  rising  at  intervals  beyond  the 
hedgerows  ; and  everywhere  the  hedgerows  are  studded  with 
trees  : the  distant  ships  seem  to  be  lifting  their  masts  and  stretch- 
ing their  red-brown  sails  close  among  the  branches  of  the  spread- 
ing ash.  Just  by  the  red-roofed  town  the  tributary  Ripple  flows 
with  a lively  current  into  the  Floss.  How  lovely  the  little  river 
is,  with  its  dark,  changing  wavelets  ! It  seems  to  me  like  a liv- 
ing companion  while  I wander  along  the  bank  and  listen  to  its 
low,  placid  voice,  as  to  the  voice  of  one  who  is  deaf  and  loving. 
I remember  those  large,  dipping  willows.  I remember  the  stone 
bridge.  And  this  is  Dorlcote  Mill. 

1 From  “ The  Mill  on  the  Floss.” 


178 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  142.1 

1.  Write  a description  of  the  Valley  of  the  Floss  (p.  177)  as 
you  imagine  it  would  look  (1)  on  a hot  day  in  July ; (2)  on  a 
bright  clear  day  in  January,  with  snow  on  the  ground. 

2.  Describe  your  own  neighborhood  on  a cloudy  day  in  Febru- 
ary ; on  a calm,  clear  morning  in  July. 

3.  Rewrite  the  description  which  you  prepared  in  Section  138, 
putting  in  such  details  of  weather,  sky,  and  air  as  may  give  your 
reader  a good  idea  of  the  place  in  summer ; in  winter. 

4.  Describe  a scene  at  a county  fair  in  fine  weather. 

5.  Describe  the  same  scene  during  a sudden  shower. 

6.  Describe  a holiday  procession  in  a city  on  a bright  day  in 
early  summer.  Do  not  forget  the  spectators. 

7.  Describe  the  same  scene  during  a sudden  thunderstorm. 

8.  Rain  in  summer. 

a.  Describe  the  appearance  of  the  country  before  the  rain. 

h.  Indications  of  the  coming  shower. 

c.  The  shower  itself. 

d.  The  effect  of  the  rain. 

9.  Repeat  No.  8,  with  winter  for  summer  and  snow  for  rain. 

10.  Write  a description  of  a public  square  in  Havana  or  Manila 
in  the  rainy  season  ; in  the  dry  season. 

11.  Describe  a street  in  Boston  on  a dusty  day  in  March,  with 
the  east  wind  blowing. 

12.  Describe  a storm  on  Lake  Michigan.  Imagine  yourself  on 
the  lake  in  a small  sailboat  with  three  companions.  Define  the 
time  carefully. 

13.  Describe  a storm  on  the  coast  of  Maine,  as  in  No.  12 ; in 
Chesapeake  Bay ; in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ; on  the  coast  of  South- 
ern California.  Be  sure  to  define  the  time. 

14.  Describe  a storm  in  the  mountains.  Fix  the  place  and 
the  time  before  you  begin. 

1 It  is  not  intended  that  all  these  exercises  shall  he  written  at  this  point. 
Some  of  them  may  be  postponed  till  the  pupil  has  finished  Section  151. 
The  teacher  will  of  course  use  his  discretion. 


COMPARISON  IN  DESCRIPTION. 


179 


SECTION  143. 

COMPARISON  IN  DESCRIPTION. 

In  describing  a place  you  can  often  help  your  reader 
by  giving  him  a general  idea  of  the  ‘‘  lay  of  the  land.” 
Do  not  go  into  overmuch  detail,  however.  Words  will 
not  take  the  place  of  a map. 

Comparison  with  some  well-known  object  will  often  be 
of  assistance.  Thus,  a town  lying  in  the  bend  of  a 
river  may  be  compared  to  a horseshoe,  and  different 
parts  of  the  place  may  be  located  by  referring  them  to 
the  toe  of  the  horseshoe,  or  the  left  heel,  or  the  right 
heel,  and  so  on. 

You  will  recall  a number  of  similar  comparisons  that  you  have 
made  in  studying  geography.  Italy  is  often  compared  to  a hoot ; 
Cape  Cod  to  an  arm  bent  at  the  elbow  (hence  it  is  sometimes 
called  ‘‘the  right  arm  of  Massachusetts’’);  the  great  southern 
peninsula  of  Greece  to  a mulberry  leaf.  Any  map  will  suggest 
similar  comparisons  for  other  places. 

Stevenson’s  description  of  Monterey  begins  with  this 
simple  and  graphic  figure : — 

The  Bay  of  Monterey  has  been  compared  ...  to  a bent  fishing- 
hook.  Santa  Cruz  sits  exposed  at  the  shank,  the  mouth  of  the 
Salinas  river  is  at  the  middle  of  the  bend,  and  Monterey  itself  is 
cosily  ensconced  beside  the  barb.  Thus  the  ancient  capital  of 
California  faces  across  the  bay,  while  the  Pacific  Ocean,  though 
hidden  by  low  hills  and  forest,  bombards  her  left  flank  and  rear 
with  never-dying  surf.  In  front  of  the  town,  the  long  line  of 
sea-beach  trends  north  and  north-west,  and  then  westward  to 
enclose  the  bay. 

Suggest  simple  comparisons  which  would  help  you  to 
describe  two  or  three  places  with  which  you  are  familiar. 


180 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


To  THE  Teacher.  — Materials  for  the  study  of  description  of  places 
abound  in  books  with  which  the  pupils  are  familiar.  They  should  be 
required  to  search  for  such  material,  and  to  bring  specimens  to  the  class 
for  use  in  both  critical  (analytic)  and  constructive  work.  A free  discus- 
sion, led  by  the  teacher,  may  profitably  follow  the  reading  of  a pupil’s 
selection.  In  this  discussion,  however,  the  class  should  remember  that 
true  criticism  points  out  excellences  as  well  as  defects. 

The  following  citations  will  be  of  assistance:  — Chaucer’s  “Knight’s 
Tale,”  lines  1109-36  (or  Dryden’s  “ Palamon  and  Arcite,”  Book  ii,  lines 
524-59);  Spenser’s  “Faerie  Queene,”  Book  i,  Canto  i,  stanza  34;  Gold- 
smith’s “ Traveller  ” and  “ Deserted  Village  ” ; Byron’s  “ Childe  Harold,” 
Canto  III,  stanzas  85-9,  92-3,  “ Siege  of  Corinth,”  11 ; Wordsworth’s  “ Mar- 
garet; or.  The  Ruined  Cottage,”  lines  1-69  (pp.  5-7 1),  “Prelude,”  Book  i, 
lines  18-61  (pp.  69-70),  Book  xiv,  lines  1-129  (pp.  194-7),  “Excursion,” 
Book  II,  lines  827-81  (pp.  198-200),  “Poems  on  the  Naming  of  Places” 
(pp.  104-8),  etc. ; Shelley’s  “ Among  the  Euganean  Hills,”  lines  66-141 ; 
Gray’s  “ Letters  ” and  “ Journal  in  the  Lakes  ” (Phelps’s  “ Selections  from 
Gray,”  pp.  93-125) ; Cowper’s  “ Task,”  Book  i,  lines  210-364;  Tennyson’s 
“Princess”  (Prologue)  and  “Enoch  Arden”;  Irving’s  “Sketch  Book” 
and  “ Alhambra ”;  ^Green’s  “Short  History  of  the  English  People,” 
Chapter  ii.  Section  9 (Chateau  Gaillard) ; Scott’s  “ Ivanhoe  ” (Chapters 
I,  III,  vii),  “Quentin  Durward  ” (Chapters  iii,  xxviii),  “Pirate”  (Chap- 
ters I,  xxviii),  “Talisman”  (Chapter  vii),  “Antiquary”  (Chkpter  vii), 
“Bride  of  Lammermoor  ” (Chapter  xviii). 

“ Howe’s  Masquerade  ” in  Hawthorne’s  “Twice-Told  Tales”  gives  a 
good  description  of  the  old  Province  House.  The  author  imagines  him- 
self as  guided  through  the  building  by  Mr.  Thomas  Waite,  who  points  out 
what  is  of  interest  as  they  go  from  room  to  room. 

Narratives  of  travel,  adventure,  and  discovery  afford  a great  variety 
of  material.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  Hakluyt’s  “ Voyages,”  and 
the  works  of  Admiral  Byron,  Dana,  Stanley,  Kane,  Nansen,  Lord  Dufferin, 
Mrs.  Brassey,  Miss  Mary  Kingsley.  See  also  Parkman’s  “ Oregon  Trail,” 
Irving’s  “Astoria,”  Hawthorne’s  “Italian  Note-Books,”  and  Longfellow’s 
“ Outre-Mer.”  Most  novels  also  abound  in  descriptive  passages. 

The  “ special  correspondence  ” in  the  better  class  of  newspapers  con- 
tains many  good  descriptions  of  places,  which  may  be  utilized  as  specimens 
and  as  material  for  exercises.  The  pupils  will  easily  perceive  the  differ- 
ence between  these  articles  and  the  more  carelessly  written  columns  of 
the  same  journals.  They  may  combine  their  study  of  such  descriptions 
with  their  lessons  in  iihysical  and  political  geography  and  in  history. 


1 The  page  references  are  to  Dowdeii’s  “ Poems  of  Wordsworth  ” in  the 
Atheiifeuni  Press  Series. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  PERSONS. 


181 


SECTION  144. 

DESCEIPTION  OF  PEESONTS. 

Nothing  is  harder  than  to  describe  the  form  and 
features  of  a person  accurately,  so  that  he  will  be 
recognized  by  a stranger. 

This  difficulty  may  be  illustrated  by  a familiar  example.  Sup- 
pose the  police  advertise  the  description  of  a criminal  of  whom 
they  have  no  photograph.  The  chances  are  that  several  innocent 
persons  will  be  arrested  before  the  right  man  is  caught.  For  such 
a description  can  do  little  more  than  give  height  and  weight,  com- 
plexion, color  of  hair  and  eyes,  general  shape  of  nose,  and  so  on. 
The  difference  between  persons  consists  in  much  finer  points  than 
these.  Nearly  half  the  people  in  the  world  are  of  “medium 
height,”  and  have  straight  noses  and  either  blue  eyes  or  black. 
Even  a poor  photograph  or  drawing  is  more  serviceable  than  such 
a description. 

Yet,  on  the  other  hand,  a written  description  can  do 
much  that  a picture  cannot. 

A picture,  for  example,  can  give  you  little  idea  of  how  a per- 
son moves.  It  tells  nothing  of  his  manners,  of  his  speech,  of 
the  sound  of  his  voice,  of  the  fashion  in  which  he  pronounces  his 
words.  Yet  your  first  impression  of  a new  acquaintance  depends, 
in  large  part,  upon  just  such  traits  as  these.  Your  liking  for 
him  is  determined,  perhaps,  by  his  agreeable  voice  or  his  cordial 
way  of  speaking ; often,  too,  by  the  charm  of  his  smile  or  the 
way  in  which  he  looks  at  you  while  you  are  talking  to  him. 
Here,  then,  lie  the  strength  and  the  opi)ortunity  of  description 
as  compared  with  portraiture. 

In  Eichardson’s  “Clarissa  Harlowe,”  the  following 
description  is  given  to  the  heroine  to  enable  her  to 
recognize  a ruffian  who  is  pursuing  her. 


182 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


A sun-burnt,  pock-fretten  ^ sailor,  ill-looking,  raw-boned ; his 
stature  about  six  feet ; a heavy  eye,  an  over-hanging  brow,  a 
deck-treading  stride  in  his  walk ; a couteau  ^ generally  by  his  side ; 
lips  parched  from  his  gums,  as  if  by  staring  at  the  sun  in  hot 
climates ; a brown  coat ; a colored  handkerchief  about  his  neck ; 
an  oaken  plant  ^ in  his  hand  near  ^ as  long  as  himself,  and  pro- 
portionably  thick. 

If  you  were  to  meet  such  a man,  you  would  recognize 
him  in  an  instant.  Yet  notice  how  little  the  descrip- 
tion goes  into  details  with  respect  to  his  separate 
features. 

First  the  author  gives  you  a striking  impression  of  the  sailor’s 
general  appearance ; then  he  mentions  his  height ; then  two 
peculiarities  of  his  face,  and  his  manner  of  w^alking;  then  the 
knife  that  hangs  by  his  side ; next,  a strange  expression  of  his 
lips;  and  finally  his  clothing  and  the  great  stick  that  he  always 
carries.  All  these  details  fit  together  easily  and  naturally  into 
one  complete  impression.  If  there  were  many  more  of  them, 
you  could  hardly  grasp  the  description  as  a whole.  The  effect 
would  be  scattering  and  confused. 

The  description  of  a person,  then,  must  not  include  too 
many  details.  It  should  not  attempt  to  be  exhaustive. 

Moreover,  such  a description  should  not  try  to  por- 
tray every  feature  minutely.  It  may  begin  by  giving 
the  general  impression  which  the  person  would  produce 
at  first  sight.  It  may  then  reinforce  this  general 
impression  by  mentioning  significant  details,  — as  size, 
coloring,  walk,  tricks  of  manner,  strongly  marked  fea- 
tures, and  the  like.  In  any  case,  the  description  should 
be  compact,  and  expressed  in  vivid  words. 

1 That  is,  pock-marked.  2 That  is,  a knife. 

3 That  is,  a stick  or  staff.  ^ Old  style  for  nearly. 


CHARACTER  IN  DESCRIPTION. 


183 


SECTION  145. 

CHARACTER  IN  DESCRIPTION. 

The  description  of  a person  may  often  contain  some 
hint  of  his  character.  Thus,  the  sailor  in  Clarissa 
Harlowe  ” (Section  144)  was  ill-looking  ” and  had  a 
‘‘heavy  eye.”  We  can  have  no  doubt  that  he  was  a 
bad  fellow. 

Read  the  following  description  of  Dinah  Morris,  the 
preacher,  with  this  question  of  character  in  mind. 

DINAH  MORRIS.i 
By  George  Eliot. 

Dinah  walked  as  simply  as  if  she  were  going  to  market,  and 
seemed  as  unconscious  of  her  outward  appearance  as  a little  boy ; 
there  was  no  blush,  no  tremulousness,  which  said,  know  you 
think  me  a pretty  woman,  too  young  to  preach  ” ; no  casting  up 
or  down  of  the  eyelids,  no  compression  of  the  lips,  no  attitude  of 
the  arms,  that  said,  But  you  must  think  of  me  as  a saint.” 
She  held  no  book  in  her  ungloved  hands,  but  let  them  hang  down 
lightly  crossed  before  her,  as  she  stood  and  turned  her  gray  eyes 
on  the  people.  There  was  no  keenness  in  the  eyes ; they  seemed 
rather  to  be  shedding  love  than  making  observations ; they  had 
the  liquid  look  that  tells  that  the  mind  is  full  of  what  it  has  to 
give  out,  rather  than  impressed  by  external  objects.  She  stood 
with  her  left  hand  towards  the  descending  sun  ; and  leafy  boughs 
screened  her  from  its  rays ; but  in  this  sober  light  the  delicate 
coloring  of  her  face  seemed  to  gather  a calm  vividness,  like 
flowers  at  evening. 

It  was  a small  oval  face,  of  a uniform  transparent  whiteness, 
with  an  egg-like  line  of  cheek  and  chin,  a full  but  Arm  mouth,  a 
delicate  nostril,  and  a low  perpendicular  brow,  surmounted  by  a 


1 From  “ Adam  Bede.” 


184 


thp:  mother  tongue. 


rising  arch  of  parting,  between  smooth  locks  of  pale  reddish  hair. 
The  hair  was  drawn  straight  back  behind  the  ears,  and  covered, 
except  for  an  inch  or  two  above  the  brow,  by  a net  Quaker  cap. 
The  eyebrows,  of  the  same  color  as  the  hair,  were  perfectly  hori- 
zontal and  firmly  penciled ; the  eyelashes,  though  no  darker,  were 
long  and  abundant ; nothing  was  left  blurred  or  unfinished.  It 
was  one  of  those  faces  that  make  one  think  of  white  flowers  with 
light  touches  of  color  on  their  pure  petals.  The  eyes  had  no 
peculiar  beauty  beyond  that  of  expression ; they  looked  so  simple, 
so  candid,  so  gravely  loving,  that  no  accusing  scowl,  no  light 
sneer,  could  help  melting  away  before  their  glance. 

Joshua  Rann  gave  a long  cough,  as  if  he  were  clearing  his 
throat  in  order  to  come  to  a new  understanding  with  himself ; 
Chad  Cranage  lifted  up  his  leather  skull-cap  and  scratched  his 
head ; and  Wiry  Ben  wondered  how  Seth  had  the  pluck  to  think 
of  courting  her. 

Here  the  last  lines  in  the  second*  paragraph,  which 
interpret  Dinah’s  character,  go  a long  way  to  fix  your 
impression  of  her.  So  Dickens  ends  his  description  of 
Mr.  Jingle,  in  the  ‘‘Pickwick  Papers,”  with  the  sen- 
tence, — 

His  face  was  thin  and  haggard;  but  an  indescribable  air  of 
jaunty  impudence  and  perfect  self-possession  pervaded  the  whole 
man. 

In  fact,  many  of  the  commonest  words  and  phrases 
of  description  imply  or  suggest  character  : as,  — hard- 
featured,  melancholy  air^  stolid-looking^  firm  chin,  smiling 
eyes.  Such  words  may  make  a description  far  more 
effective  than  a picture  ; for  they  give  the  reader  a 
deeper  understanding  of  the  person  described. 

Note  little  traits,  then,  — a look,  a movement,  an 
expression,  — which  betray  character  and  make  that 
individual  person  different  from  every  one  else. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  PERSONS. 


185 


To  THE  Teacher.  — Examples  of  personal  description  are  plentiful, 
and  the  pupils  should  be  able  to  find  them  in  abundance  in  the  literature 
which  they  are  studying  or  elsewhere.  The  following  references  will  be 
of  assistance : — Chaucer's  “ Prologue  to  the  Canterbury  Tales  ” ; Dryden's 
“ Character  of  a Good  Parson  ” (from  Chaucer) ; Dryden’s  “ Palamon  and 
Arcite,”  Book  iii,  lines  38-89;  Thomson’s  “ Castle  of  Indolence,”  Canto  i, 
stanzas  57-68;  Goldsmith’s  “Deserted  Village,”  lines  139-192;  Scott’s 
“Ivanhoe”  (for  example.  Chapters  ii  and  xxii),  “Kenilworth”  (Chapters 
I,  xxvi),  “Quentin  Durward  ” (Chapter  ii),  and  “The  Talisman”  (Chap- 
ters I,  xvii) ; Longfellow’s  “Tales  of  a Wayside  Inn,”  “Evangeline,” 
and  “ Courtship  of  Miles  Standish  ” ; the  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  papers  in 
“The  Spectator”;  Mrs.  Gaskell’s  “ Cranford  ” ; Green’s  “Short  History 
of  the  English  People,”  Chapter  vi.  Section  4 (Henry  VIII),  Chapter  vii. 
Section  3 (Queen  Elizabeth) ; Hawthorne’s  “ House  of  the  Seven  Gables,” 
“ Twice-Told  Tales,”  “ Wonder  Book,”  and  “ Tanglewood  Tales”;  Mil- 
ton’s “Paradise  Lost,”  Book  ii;  Irving’s  “Sketch  Book,”  “Tales  of  a 
Traveller,”  and  “ Bracebridge  Hall”;  Kipling’s  “Kim,”  Chapter  i,  p.  6 
(description  of  the  lama) ; the  close  of  Stevenson’s  essay  on  Villon ; the 
description  of  the  uncle  in  Stevenson’s  “ Merry  Men,”  Chapter  ii ; Words- 
worth’s “Margaret”  (lines  26  ff.,  p.  6i),  “ Simon  Lee  ” (pp.  27-28),  “The 
Old  Cumberland  Beggar”  (pp.  38-39),  “Beggars”  (pp.  132-3),  “The 
Solitary  Reaper”  (pp.  178-9),  “ She  was  a Phantom  of  Delight”  (p.  184), 
“ Characteristics  of  a Child  ” (pp.  237-8). 

There  is  much  vivid  description  of  persons  in  Mr.  Austin  Dobson’s 
“Eighteenth  Century  Vignettes”:  see,  for  instance,  the  description  of 
Horace  Walpole  in  “A  Day  at  Strawberry  Hill”;  that  of  Swift  writing 
in  bed,  in  the  essay  on  “The  Journal  to  Stella”  ; that  of  Richardson  and 
his  circle  in  “Richardson  at  Home.”  The  last-mentioned  example  is  the 
description  of  a picture.  The  same  essay  describes  a portrait  of  Richardson. 

An  instructive  series  of  descriptions  of  portraits  may  be  found  in  Steven- 
son’s “Some  Portraits  by  Raeburn”  (No.  8 in  his  “Virginibus  Pueris- 
que”).  A graphic  and  amusing  description  of  an  old  engraving  is 
Mr.  Jebb’s  account  of  the  frontispiece  to  “ Phalaris  ” (see  his  “ Bentley  ” 
in  the  “ English  Men  of  Letters  ”). 

The  first  chapter  of  Emily  Bronte’s  “Wuthering  Heights”  is  a good 
example  of  description  (both  personal  and  local)  in  the  form  of  narrative 
intermingled  with  dialogue. 

George  Borrow’s  account  of  his  meeting  with  the  poacher  and  his  “ fairy 
dog”  in  “Lavengro”  (Chapter  xii)  combines,  in  a masterly  way  and  in 
brief  space,  action,  conversation,  personal  description,  and  description  of 
S’enery. 

1 The  page  references  are  to  Dowden’s  “ Poems  of  AVordsworth  ” in  tlie 
Athenaeum  Press  Series. 


186 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  146. 

1.  Study  Franklin’s  description  of  himself  (pp.  8-9).  Note 
the  details  that  help  to  produce  the  desired  impression  on  the 
imagination  of  the  reader. 

2.  Bring  a photograph  of  some  one  to  the  class,  and  try  to 
write  a description  that  will  make  the  other  pupils  recognize  it. 
Then  show  them  the  photograph  and  see  if  they  would  recognize 
it  from  your  description. 

3.  Write  a description  of  a person  from  a photograph  or  other 
picture.  Compare  your  description  with  those  written  by  the 
other  pupils. 

4.  Copy  a description  of  a person,  as  found  in  some  story  that 
you  have  read.  Observe  the  items  included  in  the  description. 
Do  they  refer  to  appearance  or  character? 

5.  Read  the  description  of  Miss  Trotwood  in  David  Cop- 
perfield  ” ; of  Uriah  Heep ; of  Traddles.  Comment  upon  the 
descriptions. 

6.  Read  ‘‘  The  Last  Leaf,”  by  Holmes.  Observe  and  report 
the  personal  description  in  the  poem. 

7.  Write  a description  of  a lost  child,  for  insertion  in  a local 
newspaper. 

8.  Study  the  description  of  Scrooge  in  Dickens’s  Christmas 
Carol.”  Indicate  (1)  the  details  which  bring  out  his  character; 

(2)  those  which  indicate  appearance  only  and  which  might  have 
been  included  in  a picture ; (3)  those  which  indicate  habit  or 
action. 

9.  Make  a list  of  ten  descriptive  words  which  suggest  or 
interpret  character. 

10.  Bring  to  the  class  three  good  descriptions  of  persons.  Pick 
out  (1)  the  words  or  phrases  that  describe  features;  (2)  those 
that  describe  general  appearance,  manners,  and  movements; 

(3)  those  that  interpret  or  express  character. 

Omit  (1)  and  read  the  description  aloud.  Do  the  same 
with  (2)  and  (3).  Note  the  loss  in  each  case. 


A DESCRIPTION  IS  NOT  AN  INVENTORY.  187 


SECTION  147. 

A DESCRIPTION  IS  NOT  AN  INVENTORY. 

A mere  list  of  disconnected  facts  cannot  properly  be 
called  a description. 

Turn  to  Dickens’s  description  of  ‘‘The  Old  Boat” 
(p.  159).  Make  a list  of  the  several  details  there  men- 
tioned. Read  your  list  aloud.  It  is  merely  confusing, 
you  observe.  It  gives  you  no  picture  of  the  boat  and 
its  contents. 

Now  read  the  description  itself.  Here  are  the  same 
details  that  you  included  in  your  list.  Yet  they  make 
a perfect  picture  of  the  cosey  interior  of  the  old  vessel. 

One  reason  for  the  difference  is  that  in  the  description 
the  separate  facts  and  ideas  are  so  grouped  that  they 
give  you  a number  of  clear  impressions,  and  these  are 
not  too  numerous  for  the  mind  to  retain.  Further, 
there  is  variety  in  expression.  Your  list  was,  of  course, 
utterly  monotonous ; in  “ The  Old  Boat,”  on  the  con- 
trary, the  sentences  are  skilfully  varied. 

The  importance  of  variety  is  further  illustrated  by 
George  Eliot’s  description  of  Dinah  Morris  (pp.  183-4). 
This  contains  many  separate  details,  and  it  would  be 
easy  to  reduce  them  to  a list.  Yet  they  are  so  well 
grouped,  and  are  expressed  in  a style  so  agreeably 
varied,  that  our  interest  never  flags.  When  we  have  read 
the  passage,  we  find  that  we  have  a vivid  and  consistent 
idea  of  Dinah’s  appearance  and  character,  in  which  all 
the  details  are  wrought  into  a single  impression. 

It  is  this  skill  in  grouping  and  in  blending  details 
that  distinguishes  a description  from  an  inventory. 


188 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  148. 

Study  the  following  descriptions,  observing  the  numer- 
ous details  and  the  significance  of  each. 

1.  People  this  street,  so  ornamented  [that  is,  with  innumerable 
signs]  with  crowds  of  swinging  chairmen,  with  servants  bawling 
to  clear  the  way,  with  Mr.  Dean  in  his  cassock,  his  lacquey  march- 
ing before  him ; or  Mrs.  Dinah  in  her  sack,  tripping  to  chapel, 
her  foot-boy  carrying  her  ladyship’s  great  prayer-book ; with 
itinerant  tradesmen,  singing  their  hundred  cries  (I  remember 
forty  years  ago,  as  boy  in  London  city,  a score  of  cheery,  familiar 
cries  that  are  silent  now).  Fancy  the  beaux  thronging  to  the 
chocolate-houses,  tapping  their  snuff-boxes  as  they  issue  thence, 
their  periwigs  appearing  over  the  red  curtains.  Fancy  Sacharissa, 
beckoning  and  smiling  from  the  upper  windows,  and  a crowd  of 
soldiers  brawling  and  bustling  at  the  door  — gentlemen  of  the 
Life  Guards,  clad  in  scarlet,  with  blue  facings,  and  laced  with 
gold  at  the  seams  ; gentlemen  of  the  Horse  Grenadiers,  in  their 
caps  of  sky-blue  cloth,  with  the  garter  embroidered  on  the  front 
in  gold  and  silver;  men  of  the  Halberdiers,  in  their  long  red 
coats,  as  bluff  Harry  left  them,  with  their  ruff  and  velvet 
caps.  — Thackeray. 

2.  The  lofty  houses;  the  stately,  though  narrow  and  gloomy, 
streets,  the  splendid  display  of  the  richest  goods  and  most  gor- 
geous armor  in  the  warehouses  and  shops  around;  the  walks 
crowded  by  busy  citizens  of  every  description,  passing  and  repass- 
ing with  faces  of  careful  importance  or  eager  bustle  ; the  huge 
wains,  which  transported  to  and  fro  the  subject  of  export  and 
import,  the  former  consisting  of  broadcloths  and  serge,  arms  of 
all  kinds,  nails  and  iron-work,  while  the  latter  comprehended 
every  article  of  use  or  luxury  intended  either  for  the  consumption 
of  an  opulent  city  or  received  in  barter  and  destined  to  be  trans- 
ported elsewhere  — all  these  objects  combined  to  form  an  engross- 
ing picture  of  wealth,  bustle  and  splendor,  to  which  Quentin  had 
been  hitherto  a stranger.  — Scott. 


DESCKIPTION  IN  STORIP:8. 


189 


111  the  first  passage,  there  are  several  sentences,  all 
of  them  filled  with  action.  The  whole  makes  a lively 
picture  of  London  in  the  time  of  George  I. 

In  the  second  passage  an  enumeration  of  different 
objects  is  so  managed,  in  the  compass  of  one  long  sen- 
tence, as  to  convey  a vivid  impression  of  prosperous 
activity. 

Make  a list  of  the  details  mentioned  in  these  passages, 
and  compare  the  monotony  of  your  inventory  with  the 
liveliness  of  the  descriptions  tliemselves.  This  observa- 
tion will  bring  out  clearly  the  lesson  that  a description 
is  not  an  enumeration. 


SECTION  149. 

DESCRIPTION^  IN^  STORIES. 

Almost  every  story  needs  some  description  of  the 
places  in  which  the  incidents  occur  and  of  the  persons 
who  take  part  in  them. 

Such  descriptions  should  be  brief.  Some  stories  — as,  for 
example,  “ Rumpelstiltskin  ” (p.  112)  — get  along  very  well  with 
no  description  to  speak  of,  and  we  all  know  from  experience 
how  often  long  descriptions  in  a story  are  skipped. 

The  description  should  include  movements  and  sounds,  as  well 
as  what  is  seen.  Note  how  much  is  contained  in  the  following 
stanza  from  Coleridge’s  “ Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner  ” : — 

It  ceased;  yet  still  the  sails  made  on 
A pleasant  noise  till  noon,  — 

A noise  like  of  a hidden  brook 
In  the  leafy  month  of  June, 

That  to  the  quiet  woods  all  night 
Singeth  a quiet  tune. 


190 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


Kipling  once  described  a bull-dog  following  a carriage  as 
‘‘  rolling  in  his  run,  and  smiling  as  a bull-dog  will  ; and  Gold- 
smith, describing  a scene  at  night,  wrote  of  a ‘‘bark  at  hollow 
distance.” 

The  description  in  a story  should,  so  far  as  possible, 
be  combined  with  the  action,  just  as,  in  real  life,  we 
note  the  appearance  of  persons  and  objects  while  we  are 
doing  something  ourselves. 

Thus  Sir  George  Grey  writes,  in  his  narrative  of 
explorations  in  Australia:  — 

In  the  afternoon  we  travelled  about  three  miles  in  a south-by- 
east direction,  and  then  came  to  the  bed  of  a small  stream,  which 
ran  from  east  to  west,  but  was  now  merely  a chain  of  pools. 
Across  the  bed,  where  we  passed  it,  was  a native  weir.  Our  route 
during  the  whole  evening  lay  over  hills  of  a nature  similar  to 
those  toe  passed  yesterday. 

Here  the  movement  of  the  story  is  not  interrupted. 
What  description  is  necessary  is  mingled  so  naturally 
and  effectively  with  the  action  that  the  two  can  hardly 
be  distinguished. 

In  some  stories,  especially  those  of  out-of-door  life, 
our  chief  interest  may  be  in  places  and  animals  and 
weather.  In  this  case,  the  space  given  to  descrip- 
tion will  naturally  be  larger.  Such  stories,  however, 
may  easily  become  descriptions  unless  the  action  clearly 
preponderates. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — The  dilference  between  stories  in  which  the 
description  is  an  important  element  and  those  in  which  it  fairly  dominates 
may  be  made  clear  by  a consideration  of  such  works  as  Stevenson’s 
“Travels  with  a Donkey,”  Thoreau’s  “Walden”  and  “ Maine  Woods,” 
and  the  writings  of  Mr.  John  Burroughs  and  Mr.  Bradford  Torrey. 


ACTION  IN  DESCRIPTION. 


191 


SECTION  150. 

ACTION  IN  DESCRIPTION. 

One  of  the  advantages  which  a description  has  over 
a picture  consists  in  its  power  to  express  action. 

In  real  life  we  seldom  sit  still  as  we  note  one  detail 
of  a scene  after  another.  We  move  about,  and  observe 
the  details  in  that  way.  This  fact  suggests  a good 
method  of  writing  the  introduction  in  a descriptive 
essay,  and  also  an  easy  means  of  passing  from  one  detail 
or  phase  of  the  subject  to  the  next. 

Dana  in  his  description  of  an  iceberg  (p.  157)  tells  how 
the  cook  <‘put  his  head  down  the  scuttle  and  told  us  to  come 
on  deck  and  see  the  finest  sight  that  we  had  ever  seen  ” ; and 
toward  the  end  he  remarks  that  the  berg  seemed  to  be  drifting 
slowly  toward  the  north,  so  that  we  kept  away  and  avoided  it.’’ 

So  in  observing  a person,  we  watch  his  movements, 
and  we  may  converse  with  him  and  note  the  tone  of  his 
voice  or  the  changing  expression  of  his  face. 

George  Eliot  describes  Dinah  Morris  (p.  183)  as  she  walks  out 
to  address  the  people  ; presently  she  remarks  that  she  stood 
with  her  left  hand  toward  the  descending  sun;  and  leafy  boughs 
screened  her  from  its  rays  ” ; and  she  closes  by  noting  what  some 
of  the  spectators  did  as  they  watched  the  speaker  (p.  184).  Such 
little  actions  keep  the  description  from  being  a mere  inventory  or 
catalogue  of  Dinah’s  features. 

If  a description,  then,  is  to  represent  real  life,  it 
should  include  touches  of  movement  and  action. 

Some  descriptions  have  so  much  action  that  they  may 
almost  be  called  stories,  and  we  have  seen  that  almost 
all  stories  need  some  description. 


192 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  151. 

THE  CENTRAL  POINT  IN  A DESCRIPTION. 

Finally,  a description  should  lay  emphasis  on  some  one 
object  or  on  a single  impression,  just  as  a picture  centres  in 
or  around  a definite  point. 

So,  if  you  are  describing  a place,  your  attention  may  centre  on 
some  particular  feature  of  the  landscape,  — as,  a certain  house,  or 
a great  hill,  or  a river.  Again,  you  may  fix  your  mind  mainly  on 
the  general  effect  of  freshness  and  young  green  in  the  spring,  or 
of  warm  luxuriance  in  summer.  Or  perhaps  you  will  let  the  place 
serve  merely  as  a background  for  the  people  who  live  in  it.  In 
this  case,  you  will  consider  the  place  chiefly  as  it  affects  the 
inhabitants,  their  tastes,  feelings,  and  manner  of  life. 

Similarly,  in  describing  a person,  you  should  make  some  char- 
acteristic stand  out  vividly,  just  as  in  real  life  our  impressions 
would  focus  on  some  particular  trait  or  individual  expression. 

In  each  instance,  the  required  emphasis  will  be  pro- 
duced by  the  selection  of  a different  set  of  details.  It 
is  impossible  to  note  every  detail  of  any  scene.  You 
must  omit  the  larger  part  of  them.  Selection,  then,  is 
unavoidable.  In  making  the  selection,  keep  in  mind 
the  definite  point  or  effect  which  the  description  is  to 
produce. 

Thus,  Dana  emphasizes  the  flashing  life  and  brilliancy  of  the 
iceberg  (p,  158)  ; Dickens,  the  cosiness  and  comfort  of  the  Old 
Boat  (p.  160);  George  Eliot,  the  unworldly  loveliness  of  Dinah 
Morris  (p.  183).  In  “Quentin  Durward  ” (Chapter  v),  Lesly’s 
peculiar  scar  is  emphasized  ; and  in  the  description  of  De  la  Marck 
(Chapter  xxii)  the  central  effect  is  his  strange  resemblance  to  a 
wild  boar. 


CENTRAL  POINT  IN  A DESCRIPTION.  193 


It  is  because  of  this  skilful  empliasis  on  a single  effect 
that  all  these  descriptions  leave  so  clear  and  strong  an 
impression. 

A description,  then,  should  have  a distinct  effect  in 
view,  just  as  a short  story  should  lead  up  to  a single 
point  (see  p.  134).  Its  excellence  will  depend  largely 
on  the  skill  with  which  the  details  are  selected  and  mar- 
shalled in  composition.  A good  description  should 
make  as  clear  and  sharply  defined  an  impression  as  a 
good  picture. 

Finally,  whatever  you  select  as  the  point  or  chief 
effect  of  your  description  must  be  your  own  choice, 
springing  out  of  your  own  interests  and  experience. 
Every  good  description  shows  us  not  the  scene  merely, 
but  the  scene  as  it  impresses  the  writer. 

If  you  visit  a new  place  with  your  father,  you  cannot  look  at 
it  with  his  eyes.  His  knowledge  of  men  and  affairs  will  make 
him  see  a thousand  things  that  escape  your  notice,  — signs  of  a 
peculiar  industry,  for  example,  or  the  traits  of  an  old-established 
population,  or  the  rawness  of  a new  settlement.  On  the  other 
hand,  he  will  neglect  many  things  that  strike  your  eye  at  once,  — 
the  looks  and  dress  of  the  boys  and  girls,  picturesque  shops, 
and  the  liveliness  or  quiet  of  the  streets.  Though  you  walk 
through  the  city  side  by  side,  you  will  each  write  home  a different 
description  of  it. 

Always  describe  your  own  impressions.  If  you  try 
to  imitate  the  ideas  of  another,  the  result  will  pretty 
surely  be  either  affected  or  fiat,  and  not  improbably 
both.  Keep  your  eyes  and  ears  open ; note  what 
strikes  your  own  attention,  whether  in  persons  or  in 
places  ; and  do  your  best  to  reproduce  it  in  a simple 
and  vivid  style. 


194 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  152. 

EXERCISES  IN  DESCRIPTION. 

1.  Study  the  following  outlines;  then  rewrite  each  description 
from  memory,  using  the  outline  as  a guide.  Before  writing, 
make  notes  of  the  subordinate  details  in  each  paragraph. 

AN  ICEBERG. 

[See  pp.  157-8.] 

a.  Introduction.  — The  damp  chilly  air  and  falling  tem- 
perature indicate  ice  near  us.  The  cook  announces 
the  fine  sight. 

h.  The  iceberg.  — (1)  Its  appearance,  ^ — shape,  contour, 
size;  the  surrounding  water.  (2) -Sublimity  of  the 
sight,  — size  of  the  berg ; motion ; dashing  waves ; 
thundering  sound ; our  fear  of  its  nearer  approach. 

c.  The  night ; disappearance  of  the  iceberg. 

THE  OLD  BOAT. 

[See  pp.  159-60.] 

a.  The  way  to  the  house. 

h.  The  old  boat,  from  without. 

c.  The  old  boat,  from  within. 

DINAH  MORRIS. 

[See  pp.  183-4.] 

a.  Dinah’s  manner  and  general  appearance  as  she  entered, 
indicating  simplicity,  unconsciousness,  absence  of 
affectation. 

h.  Her  attitude  toward  those  about  her. 

c.  Her  face  (picture,  impression). 

(1.  Effect  upon  those  who  saw  her. 


EXERCISES  IN  DESCRIPTION. 


195 


2.  Make  an  outline  plan  of  some  short  description  of  a place. 
Prepare  a subject  for  each  paragraph.  Enumerate  the  details  in 
each.  Then  rewrite  the  description  from  your  outline. 

3.  Study  Miss  Mitford’s  description  of  The  Country  in 
Winter ’’  (p.  161).  Note  how  she  contrives  to  take  the  reader 
with  her  from  place  to  place,  so  that  he  seems  to  see  the  land- 
scape with  his  own  eyes  rather  than  the  writer’s.  By  what  means 
does  she  secure  this  effect  ? 

Write  the  description  in  the  first  person  singular,  substituting 
the  past  tense  for  the  present,  and  note  the  effect. 

4.  Miss  Mitford  is  describing  an  English  scene.  Does  the 
description  show  this  ? How  does  the  country  which  Miss 
Mitford  describes  differ  from  your  neighborhood? 

What  phrases  do  you  find  in  the  description  which  do  not 
occur  in  your  own  colloquial  English? 

Study  the  comparisons  in  the  description.  Do  they  add  to  its 
beauty  and  effectiveness  ? 

What  characteristics  of  the  writer  does  the  description  reveal  ? 

5.  Take  a walk  to  the  nearest  bit  of  country.  Then  write 
a description  of  your  walk,  after  the  manner  of  Miss  Mitford. 
Imagine  that  you  have  a child  with  you,  to  whom  you  speak  of 
the  things  which  attract  your  attention  and  interest  you. 

6.  Study  An  August  Day  in  Marseilles”  (p.  174). 

What  is  the  effect  of  the  introductory  sentence  ? 

Try  to  express  in  a fitting  sentence  or  phrase  the  substance  of 
the  next  paragraph.  By  what  device  does  the  author  make  you 
realize  the  intensity  of  the  heat  on  this  day  ? 

What  does  the  next  paragraph  add  to  the  description  ? How 
is  the  effect  produced  ? 

Show  how  the  next  paragraph  extends  the  view,  intensifies  the 
feeling  of  heat,  and  introduces  specific  details. 

Would  the  last  sentence  of  this  paragraph  have  been  equally 
effective  at  the  beginning  ? Give  your  reasons. 

toint  out  a number  of  words  or  phrases  which  impart  vivid- 
ness to  the  description. 


196 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


7.  Describe  a scene  which  you  have  observed  in  a street  car. 

8.  Write  a description  of  a field  or  pasture  with  which  you 
are  familiar.  Imagine  that  you  are  standing  by  the  pasture  bars 
and  looking  at  the  scene  which  you  describe.  Do  not  change 
your  point  of  view  during  the  description. 

9.  Describe  a character  in  some  book  you  have  read  recently. 
Include  quotations  which  throw  light  upon  the  character  described. 

10.  Write  an  account  of  a day  spent  in  taking  care  of  a fretful 
and  mischievous  child.  In  the  course  of  your  story,  describe  the 
child  and  outline  his  character. 

11.  “What  sort  of  person  is  your  friend  Brown?”  asks  your 
neighbor.  Reply  by  telling  an  incident  which  indicates  the 
character  of  your  friend. 

12.  Select  from  “ The  Lady  of  the  Lake  ” some  good  description 
of  a place  or  scene.  Read  the  description  to  the  class,  pointing  out 
the  features  which  illustrate  the  principles  of  descriptive  writing. 

13.  Describe  a picture  which  you  have  at  home.  (1)  Tell 
whether  it  is  an  oil  painting,  a water  color,  or  a photograph 
or  other  reproduction ; (2)  tell  its  name ; (3)  state  the  general 
character  of  the  picture,  unless  its  name  has  indicated  this. 
(This  serves  as  an  introduction  to  your  description.) 

Choose  what  seems  to  you  the  central  or  most  important  thing 
in  the  picture.  Present  that  first  to  your  hearers,  and  describe 
the  other  objects  which  appear  in  the  picture,  bringing  them  into 
relation  to  the  central  object.  For  example  : — “A  small  water 
color  hangs  on  the  wall  in  my  study.  It  represents  a red  rock 
rising  out  of  the  sea.  The  waves  are  breaking  in  white  spray 
against  it.  The  sea  is  gray-green,  softened  by  the  gray  sky 
above.  Behind  the  rock  appear  the  gray  sails  of  a fishing-boat, 
and  far  away,  hardly  discernible  against  the  sky,  is  the  faint 
outline  of  a distant  ship.” 

14.  Describe  some  house  as  clearly  as  you  can.  Read  your 
description  to  the  class,  asking  the  pupils  to  draw  the  house  from 
your  description.  Compare  the  drawings,  and  see  whether  they 
represent  what  you  actually  described. 


EXERCISES  IN  DESCRIPTION. 


197 


15.  Cut  a picture  from  some  magazine  and  bring  it  to  the 
class  with  a written  description  of  what  it  represents.  In  the 
class,  exchange  with  another  pupil  and  describe  the  picture  which 
you  have  received  in  exchange.  Compare  your  first  description 
with  that  written  by  the  pupil  who  receives  your  picture.  Criti- 
cise both  descriptions  in  the  comparison.  (In  the  same  way, 
your  second  description  will  be  compared  with  that  of  the  pupil 
who  had  first  described  the  picture.) 

After  criticism,  these  descriptions  may  be  read  to  the  class  and 
a vote  may  be  taken  upon  their  relative  merits.  This  last  part 
of  the  exercise  will  be  more  interesting  if  the  picture  is  first  seen 
by  every  member  of  the  class. ^ 

16.  Write  a description,  using  the  following  subject  and  plan  : — 

My  grandfather’s  house,  (1)  from  without,  — description  of 

the  surroundings  and  the  house  itself;  (2)  from  within, — the 
rooms  with  their  furnishings,  and  the  inmates. 

17.  You  are  spending  a year  on  a farm.  Describe  a day’s 
work  in  summer,  and  in  winter. 

18.  Describe  the  apple-woman  at  the  corner. 

19.  Write  an  account  of  a day  in  the  hay  field.  Include  a 
description  of  the  field  when  the  men  are  at  work. 

20.  Observe  some  vacant  lot.  Note  its  situation,  its  surround- 
ings ; the  shrubs,  flowers,  weeds,  or  accumulated  deposits ; the 
children  at  play.  Write  a composition  upon  “ The  Geography 
of  a Vacant  Lot,”  embodying  your  observations. 

21.  Peggy’s  first  concert.  Peggy  is  a country  girl  who  is 
making  her  first  visit  to  the  city.  With  her  aunt  and  uncle 
she  goes  to  a fine  concert.  Describe  the  evening. 

• 

1 If  the  pupils  are  studying  drawing,  they  will  be  able  to  describe  a 
picture  in  the  light  of  that  study.  The  following  pictures  are  suggested 
for  description,  it  others  are  not  available:  — Stratford-on-Avon;  Anne 
Hathaway’s  Cottage;  The  Bridge  of  Sighs;  Home  from  the  Fair,  by  Rosa 
Bonheur;  The  Huguenot  Lovers,  by  Millais;  The  Angelas,  by  Millet; 
The  Lark,  by  Jules  Breton.  Every  pupil  will  be  able  to  add  familiar 
examples. 


198 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


22.  Imagine  yourself  as  living  in  Louisiana.  You  visit  a 
friend  in  New  England  at  Christmas.  Write  to  your  friends 
at  home,  describing  your  visit. 

23.  Reverse  the  conditions  in  the  preceding  exercise,  and  write 
from  New  Orleans. 

24.  After  writing  the  following  exercises,  criticise  your  work. 
In  particular,  observe  whether  you  have  maintained  the  speaker’s 
point  of  view.  Do  not  introduce  into  your  description  or  narra- 
tion anything  which  could  not  have  been  seen  by  the  speaker. 
Include  action  or  movement  in  your  description. 

A hungry  newsboy  stands  in  front  of  a restaurant,  looking  in 
at  the  meats  and  pastry  displayed  in  the  window,  at  the  coun- 
ters heaped  with  food,  and  the  tables  surrounded  by  persons 
eating  dinner. 

a.  Describe  the  scene  in  the  newsboy’s  words,  using  the 
first  person  and  the  present  tense. 
h.  A benevolent  woman,  standing  within  and  holding  her 
own  boy  by  the  hand,  looks  out,  sees  the  newsboy,  recog- 
nizes his  need,  invites  him  in,  provides  him  with  a good 
dinner,  and  leaves  him  enjoying  it.  Tell  the  story  as 
she  recited  it  to  her  children  in  the  evening,  describ- 
ing the  newsboy,  and  expressing  her  own  feeling. 
c.  Tell  the  story  as  a friend  of  the  woman’s,  looking  on, 
might  have  told  it  afterward.  Incidentally,  describe 
the  newsboy’s  friend. 

A fine  example  of  a description  in  which  the  author  imagines  himself 
as  looking  down  on  a place  is  Stevenson’s  elaborate  “panorama”  of 
Edinburgh  and  its  surroundings  as  seen  from  the  Calton  Hill  (“  Notes 
on  Edinburgh,”  chapter  viii).  The  author  first  describes  the  view  on  a 
clear  day  in  summer,  with  the  east  wind  blowing;  then  he  changes  the 
time  to  a winter  night.  Compare  the  view  from  the  summit  of  Kirk 
Yetton  in  the  Pentland  Hills,  at  the  end  of  the  same  work.  The  teacher 
might  well  read  one  or  both  of  these  passages  to  the  class,  with  com- 
ments, pointing  out  how  they  exemplify  most  of  the  principles  of  descrip- 
tion set  forth  in  the  present  book.  There  could  be  no  better  lecture  in 
review  of  the  whole  subject.  A sea-view  from  aloft  may  be  studied  in 
Mr.  F.  T.  Bullen’s  “In  the  Crow’s  Nest”  (in  “Idylls  of  the  Sea”). 


EXPLANATION. 


199 


SECTION  153. 

EXPLANATION. 

Sections  153-6  contain  specimens  of  explanation. 
The  Smudge  ” is  from  an  entertaining  book  of  out-of- 
door  life.  Grey’s  ‘‘Kangaroo  Hunt”  adopts  the  narra- 
tive form  and  is  full  of  action.  Lubbock’s  “ Fertilization 
of  Plants”  and  Professor  Goss’s  “Locomotive”  are  some- 
what more  technical,  and  illustrate  the  use  of  diagrams. 

THE  SMUDGE.  1 
By  Henry  Van  Dyke. 

But  enough  of  the  cooking-fire.  Let  us  turn  now  to  the  sub- 
ject of  the  smudge,  known  in  Lower  Canada  as  la  houcana. 
The  smudge  owes  its  existence  to  the  pungent  mosquito,  the 
sanguinary  black-fiy,  and  the  peppery  midge,  — le  maringouin,  la 
moustique,  et  le  hrulot.  To  what  it  owes  its  English  name  I do 
not  know ; but  its  French  name  means  simply  a thick,  nauseating, 
intolerable  smoke. 

The  smudge  is  called  into  being  for  the  express  purpose  of 
creating  a smoke  of  this  kind,  which  is  as  disagreeable  to  the 
mosquito,  and  black-fiy,  and  the  midge  as  it  is  to  the  man  whom 
they  are  devouring.  But  the  man  survives  the  smoke,  while  the 
insects  succumb  to  it,  being  destroyed  or  driven  away.  Therefore 
the  smudge,  dark  and  bitter  in  itself,  frequently  becomes,  like 
adversity,  sweet  in  its  uses.  It  must  be  regarded  as  a form  of 
fire  with  which  man  has  made  friends  under  the  pressure  of  a 
cruel  necessity. 

It  would  seem  as  if  it  ought  to  be  the  simplest  affair  in  the 
world  to  light  up  a smudge.  And  so  it  is  — if  you  are  not  trying. 

An  attempt  to  produce  almost  any  other  kind  of  fire  will  bring 
forth  smoke  abundantly.  But  when  you  deliberately  undertake 

1 From  “ Fisherman’s  Luck  ” (by  permission  of  Charles  Scribner’s  Sons). 


200 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


to  create  a smudge,  flames  break  from  the  wettest  timber,  and 
green  moss  blazes  with  a furious  heat.  You  hastily  gather  hand- 
fuls of  seemingly  incombustible  material  and  throw  it  on  the  fire, 
but  the  conflagration  increases.  Grass  and  green  leaves  hesitate 
for  an  instant  and  then  flash  up  like  tinder.  The  more  you  put 
on,  the  more  your  smudge  rebels  against  its  proper  task  of 
smudging.  It  makes  a pleasant  warmth,  to  encourage  the  black- 
flies  and  bright  light  to  attract  and  cheer  the  mosquitoes.  Your 
effort  is  a brilliant  failure. 

The  proper  way  to  make  a smudge  is  this.  Begin  with  a very 
little,  lowly  Are.  Let  it  be  bright  but  not  ambitious.  Don’t  try 
to  make  a smoke  yet. 

Then  gather  a good  supply  of  stuff  which  seems  likely  to  sup- 
press fire  without  smothering  it.  Moss  of  a certain  kind  will  do, 
but  not  the  soft,  feathery  moss  that  grows  so  deep  among  the 
spruce-trees.  Half-decayed  wood  is  good  ; spongy,  moist,  unpleas- 
ant stuff,  a vegetable  wet  blanket.  The  bark  of  dead  evergreen 
trees,  hemlock,  spruce,  or  balsam,  is  better  still.  Gather  a plen- 
tiful store  of  it.  But  don’t  try  to  make  a smoke  yet. 

Let  your  fire  burn  a while  longer ; cheer  it  up  a little.  Get 
some  clear,  resolute,  unquenchable  coals  aglow  in  the  heart  of  it. 
Don’t  try  to  make  a smoke  yet. 

Now  pile  on  your  smouldering  fuel.  Fan  it  with  your  hat. 
Kneel  down  and  blow  it,  and  in  ten  minutes  you  will  have  a 
smoke  that  will  make  you  wish  you  had  never  been  born. 

That  is  the  proper  way  to  make  a smudge.  But  the  easiest 
way  is  to  ask  your  guide  to  make  it  for  you. 

SECTION  154. 

The  following  explanation  of  the  Australian  method 
of  hunting  the  kangaroo  is  from  Sir  George  Grey’s 
‘^Travels  in  Western  and  Northwestern  Australia.” 
It  is  particularly  instructive  for  its  vividness  and  for 
the  action  which  it  embodies. 


EXPLANATION. 


201 


AUSTRALIAN  KANGAROO  HUNT. 

The  moment  an  Australian  savage  commences  his  day’s  hunt- 
ing, his  whole  manner  and  appearance  undergo  a wondrous  change. 
His  eyes,  before  heavy  and  listless,  brighten  up,  and  are  never  for 
a moment  fixed  upon  one  object ; his  gait  and  movements,  which 
were  indolent  and  slow,  become  quick  and  restless,  yet  noiseless  ; 
he  moves  along  with  a rapid  stealthy  pace,  his  glance  roving  from 
side  to  side  in  a vigilant  uneasy  manner,  arising  from  his  eager- 
ness to  detect  signs  of  game,  and  his  fears  of  hidden  foes.  The 
earth,  the  water,  the  trees,  the  skies,  each  are  in  turn  subjected  to 
a rigid  scrutiny,  and  from  the  most  insignificant  circumstances 
he  deduces  omens.  His  head  is  held  erect,  and  his  progress  is 
uncertain.  In  a moment  his  pace  is  checked ; he  stands  in  precisely 
the  position  of  motion  as  if  suddenly  transfixed.  Nothing  about 
him  stirs  but  his  eyes;  they  glance  uneasily  from  side  to  side, 
whilst  the  head  and  every  muscle  seem  immovable ; but  the  white 
eyeballs  may  be  seen  in  rapid  motion,  whilst  all  his  faculties  are 
concentrated,  and  his  whole  soul  is  absorbed  in  the  senses  of  sight 
and  hearing.  His  wives,  who  are  at  some  distance  behind  him, 
the  moment  they  see  him  assume  this  attitude,  fall  to  the  ground 
as  if  they  had  been  shot;  their  children  cower  by  them,  and  their 
little  faces  express  an  earnestness  and  anxiousness  which  is  far 
beyond  their  years.  At  length  a suppressed  whistle  is  given  by 
one  of  the  women,  which  denotes  that  she  sees  a kangaroo  near 
her  husband  — all  is  again  silence,  and  quietude  ; and  an  unprac- 
tised European  would  ride  within  a few  yards  of  the  group,  and 
not  perceive  a living  thing. 

Looking  about  a hundred  yards  to  the  right  of  the  native,  you 
will  see  a kangaroo  erect  upon  its  hind  legs,  and  supported  by  its 
tail.  It  is  reared  to  its  utmost  height,  so  that  its  head  is  between 
five  and  six  feet  above  the  ground.  Its  short  fore  paws  hang  by 
its  side  ; its  ears  are  pointed  ; it  is  listening  as  carefully  as  the 
native,  and  you  see  a little  head  appearing  out  from  its  pouch,  to 
enquire  what  has  alarmed  its  mother.  But  the  native  moves  not ; 
you  cannot  tell  whether  it  is  a human  being  or  the  charred  trunk 


202 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


of  a burnt  tree  which  is  before  you,  and  for  several  minutes  the 
whole  group  preserve  their  relative  position.  At  length  the  kan- 
garoo becomes  reassured,  drops  upon  its  fore  paws,  gives  an  awk- 
ward leap  or  two,  and  goes  on  feeding,  — the  little  inhabitant  of 
its  pouch  stretching  its  head  farther  out,  tasting  the  grass  its 
mother  is  eating,  and  evidently  debating  whether  or  not  it  is  safe 
to  venture  out  of  its  resting  place. 

Meantime  the  native  moves  not  until  the  kangaroo,  having 
two  or  three  times  resumed  the  attitude  of  listening,  and  having 
like  a monkey  scratched  its  side  with  its  fore  paw,  at  length  once 
more  abandons  itself  in  perfect  security  to  its  feed,  and  playfully 
smells  and  rubs  its  little  one.  Now  the  watchful  savage,  keeping 
his  body  unmoved,  fixes  the  spear  first  in  the  throwing-stick,  and 
then  raises  his  arms  in  the  attitude  of  throwing,  from  which  they 
are  never  again  moved  until  the  kangaroo  dies  or  runs  away. 
His  spear  being  properly  secured,  he  advances  slowly  and  stealth- 
ily towards  his  prey,  no  part  moving  but  his  legs.  Whenever  the 
kangaroo  looks  round,  he  stands  motionless  in  the  position  he  is 
in  when  it  first  raises  its  head,  until  the  animal,  again  assured  of 
its  safety,  gives  a skip  or  two  and  goes  on  feeding.  Again  the 
native  advances,  and  this  scene  is  repeated  many  times,  until  the 
whistling  spear  penetrates  the  devoted  animal.  Then  the  wood 
rings  with  shouts  ; women  and  children  all  join  pell-mell  in  the 
chase.  The  kangaroo,  weak  from  loss  of  blood,  and  embarrassed 
by  the  long  spear  which  catches  in  the  brush-wood  as  it  flies,  at 
length  turns  on  its  pursuers,  and,  to  secure  its  rear,  places  its 
back  Against  a tree,  preparing  at  the  same  time  to  rend  open  the 
breast  and  entrails  of  its  pursuer,  by  seizing  him  in  its  fore  paws, 
and  kicking  with  its  hind  legs  and  claws ; but  the  wily  native 
keeps  clear  of  so  murderous  an  embrace,  and  from  the  distance  of 
a few  yards  throws  spears  into  its  breast,  until  the  exhausted 
animal  falls,  and  is  then  soon  despatched  ; when,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  his  wives,  he  takes  its  fore  legs  over  his  left  shoulder,  and 
totters  with  his  burden  to  some  convenient  resting  place,  where 
they  can  enjoy  their  meal. 


EXPLANATIO^Sr. 


203 


SECTION  155. 

THE  FERTILIZATION  OF  PLANTS.i 
By  Sm  John  Lubbock. 

A regular  flower,  such,  for  instance,  as  a geranium  or  a pink, 
consists  of  four  or  more  whorls  of  leaves,  more  or  less  modifled : 
the  lowest  whorl  is  the  calyx,  and  the  separate  leaves  of  which  it 
is  composed,  which  however  are  sometimes  united  into  a tube, 
are  called  sepals  ; (2)  a second  whorl,  the  coi'olla,  consisting  of 
colored  leaves  called  petals,  which,  however,  like  those  of  the 
calyx,  are  often  united  into  a tube  ; (o)  of  one  or  more  stamens, 
consisting  of  a stalk  or  filament,  and  a head  or  anther,  in  which 
the  pollen  is  produced  ; and  (4)  a pistil,  which  is  situated  in  the 
centre  of  the  flower,  and  at  the  base  of  which  is  the  ovary, 
containing  one  or  more  seeds. 

Almost  all  large  flowers  are  brightly  colored,  many  produce 
honey,  and  many  are  sweet-scented. 

What,  then,  is  the  use  and  purpose  of  this  complex  organization? 

It  is,  I think,  well  established  that  the  main  object  of  the 
color,  scent,  and  honey  of  flowers  is  to  attract  insects,  which  are 
of  use  to  the  plant  in  carrying  the  pollen  from  flower  to  flower. 

In  many  species  the  pollen  is,  and  no  doubt  it  originally  was 
in  all,  carried  by  the  air.  In  these  cases  the  chance  against  any 
given  grain  of  pollen  reaching  the  pistil  of  another  flower  of  the 
same  species  is  of  course  very  great,  and  the  quantity  of  pollen 
required  is  therefore  immense. 

In  species  where  the  pollen  is  wind-borne,  as  in  most  of  our 
trees  — firs,  oaks,  beech,  ash,  elm,  etc.,  and  many  herbaceous 
plants,  the  flowers  are  as  a rule  small  and  inconspicuous,  greenish, 
and  without  either  scent  or  honey.  Moreover,  they  generally 
flower  early,  so  that  the  pollen  may  not  be  intercepted  by  the 
leaves,  but  may  have  a better  chance  of  reaching  another  flower. 
And  they  produce  an  immense  quantity  of  pollen,  as  otherwise 

1 From  “ The  Beauties  of  Nature.”  Copyright,  1892,  by  Macmillan  & Co. 


204 


THE  MOTHER  TOIS^GUE. 


there  Avould  be  little  chance  that  any  Avould  reach  the  female 
flower.  Every  one  must  have  noticed  the  clouds  of  pollen  pro- 
duced by  the  Scotch  flr.  When,  on  the  contrary,  the  pollen  is 
carried  by  insects,  the  quantity  necessary  is  greatly  reduced.  Still 
it  has  been  calculated  that  a peony  flower  produces  between 
3,000,000  and  4,000,000  pollen  grains  ; in  the  dandelion,  which  is 
more  specialized,  the  number  is  reduced  to  about  250,000  ; while 
in  such  a flower  as  the  dead-nettle  it  is  still  smaller. 

The  honey  attracts  the  insects  ; while  the  scent  and  color  help 
them  to  find  the  flowers,  the  scent  being  especially  useful  at  night, 
which  is  perhaps  the  reason  why  evening  flowers  are  so  sweet. 

It  is  to  insects,  then,  that  flowers  owe  their  beauty,  scent,  and 
sweetness.  Just  as  gardeners,  by  continual  selection,  have  added 
so  much  to  the  beauty  of  our  gardens,  so  to  the  unconscious  action 
of  insects  is  due  the  beauty,  scent,  and  sweetness  of  the  flowers  of 
our  woods  and  fields. 

Let  us  now  apply  these  views  to  a few  common  flowers.  Take, 
for  instance,  the  white  dead-nettle. 

The  corolla  of  this  beautiful  and  familiar  flower  consists  of  a 
narrow  tube,  somewhat  expanded  at  the  upper  end  (Fig.  1), 
where  the  lower  lobe  forms  a platform,  on  each  side  of  which  is 
a small  projecting  tooth  (Fig.  2,  m).  The  upper  portion  of  the 
corolla  is  an  arched  hood  (ce),  under  which  lie  four  anthers  (a  «), 
in  pairs,  while  between  them,  and  projecting  somewhat  down- 
wards, is  the  pointed  pistil  (.s-^) ; the  tube  at  the  lower  part  con- 
tains honey,  and  above  the  honey  is  a row  of  hairs  running  round 
the  tube. 

Xow,  why  has  the  flower  this  peculiar  form  ? What  regulates 
the  length  of  the  tube  ? What  is  the  use  of  the  arch  ? What 
lesson  do  the  little  teeth  teach  us  ? What  advantage  is  the  honey 
to  the  flower?  Of  what  use  is  the  fringe  of  hairs?  Why  does 
the  stigma  project  beyond  the  anthers?  Why  is  the  corolla 
white,  while  the  rest  of  the  plant  is  green? 

The  honey  of  course  serves  to  attract  the  humble-bees  by  which 
the  flower  is  fertilized,  and  to  which  it  is  especially  adapted ; the 


EXPLANATION. 


205 


white  color  makes  the  flower  more  conspicuous;  the  lower  lip 
forms  the  stage  on  which  the  bees  may  alight ; the  length  of 
the  tube  is  adapted  to  that  of  their  proboscis  ; its  narrowness 
and  the  fringe  of  fine  hairs 
exclude  small  insects  which 
might  rob  the  flower  of  its 
honey  without  performing, 
any  service  in  return;  the 
arched  upper  lip  protects  the 
stamens  and  pistil,  and  pre- 
vents rain-drops  from  chok- 
ing up  the  tube  and  washing 
away  the  honey.  The  little 
teeth  are,  I believe,  of  no  use 
to  the  flower  in  its  present 
condition  ; they  are  the  last  relics  of  lobes  once  much  larger,  and 
still  remaining  so  in  some  allied  species,  but  which  in  the  dead- 
nettle,  being  no  longer  of  any  use,  are  gradually  disappearing. 
The  height  of  the  arch  has  reference  to  the  size  of  the  bee,  being 
just  so  much  above  the  alighting  stage 
that  the  bee,  while  sucking  the  honey, 
rubs  its  back  against  the  hood  and  thus 
comes  in  contact  first  with  the  stigma  and 
then  with  the  anthers,  the  pollen-grains 
from  which  adhere  to  the  hairs  on  the 
bee’s  back,  and  are  thus  carried  oif  to  the 
next  flower  which  the  bee  visits,  when 
some  of  them  are  then  licked  off  by  the 
viscid  tip  of  the  stigma. 

In  the  salvias,  the  common  blue  salvia 
of  our  gardens,  for  instance,  — a plant 
allied  to  the  dead-nettle,  — the  flower  (Fig.  3)  is  constructed  on 
the  same  plan,  but  the  arch  is  much  larger,  so  that  the  back 
of  the  bee  does  not  nearly  reach  it.  The  stamens,  however, 
have  undergone  a remarkable  modification.  Two  of  them  have 


206 


THE  MOTHEK  TONGUE. 


become  small  and  functionless.  In  the  other  two  the  anthers  or 
cells  producing  the  pollen,  which  in  most  flowers  form  together 
a round  knob  or  head  at  the  top  of  the  stamen,  are  separated  by 
a long  arm,  which  plays  on  the  top  of  the  stamen  as  on  a hinge. 
Of  these  two  arms  one  hangs  down  into  the  tube,  closing  the 
passage,  while  the  other  lies  under  the  arched  upper  lip.  When 
the  bee  pushes  its  proboscis  down  the  tube  (Fig.  5)  it  presses  the 
lower  arm  to  one  side,  and  the  upper  arm  consequently  descends. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  5. 


tapping  the  bee  on  the  back,  and  dusting  it  with  pollen.  When 
the  flower  is  a little  older  the  pistil  (Fig.  3,  jo)  has  elongated  so 
that  the  stigma  (Fig.  4,  st)  touches  the  back  of  the  bee  and 
carries  oft  some  of  the  pollen.  This  sounds  a little  complicated, 
but  is  clear  enough  if  we  take  a twig  or  stalk  of  grass  and  push 
it  down  the  tube,  when  one  arm  of  each  of  the  two  larger 
stamens  will  at  once  make  its  appearance.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  pieces  of  plant  mechanism  which  I know. 

In  studying  this  exposition  of  ‘‘The  Fertilization  of 
Plants,”  observe  the  usefulness  of  the  figures.  These 
show  us  the  structure  of  the  flower  at  a glance,  and 
thus  enable  us  to  understand  the  action  of  the  several 
parts.  Such  diagrams  or  sketches  are  indispensable  in 
explaining  scientific  and  mechanical  subjects. 


EXPLANATION. 


207 


SECTION  156. 

THE  LOCOMOTIVE.! 

By  W.  F.  M.  Goss. 

The  boiler  and  engine  of  a locomotive  are  similar  in  their 
general  character  to  the  boiler  and  engine  of  a stationary  power-^ 
plant.  Each  exists  for  the  purpose  of  converting  into  work  the 
potential  energy  of  fuel.  There  are  differences  in  the  details  of 
mechanism,  and  in  the  conditions  under  which  work  is  performed, 
but  the  principles  underlying  action  are  the  same. 

As  compared  with  the  locomotive,  the  stationary  plant  has  an 
advantage  in  being  fixed  in  its  position.  It  may  be  so  arranged 
that  all  its  parts  are  accessible  to  attendants,  who  in  doing  their 
work  may  pass  freely  from  one  element  to  another,  and  any  detail 
which  is  better  when  made  large  can  be  given  such  dimensions  as 
will  ensure  its  efficient  and  otherwise  satisfactory  performance. 
In  many  cases  there  are  no  limiting  dimensions  ; the  plant  may  be 
built  as  long  and  as  wide  and  as  high  as  may  be  desired.  It  is  pos- 
sible, therefore,  so  to  construct  the  engines,  boilers,  and  accessory 
apparatus  of  a stationary  plant,  as  to  secure  any  desired  degree  of 
efficiency,  within  limits  which  are  prescribed  by  the  state  of  the 
art.  If  the  pulsating  sound  of  escaping  steam  is  objectionable,  it 
may  be  entirely  eliminated  by  the  application  of  a suitable  exhaust- 
head  or  muffler.  If  the  presence  of  a cloud  of  exhaust-steam  is 
annoying,  it  may  be  entirely  suppressed  by  the  use  of  a condenser. 
If  smoke  emerging  from  the  top  of  the  stack  becomes  a nuisance, 
it  may  be  made  to  disappear  by  the  use  of  down-draft  furnaces, 
or  by  the  application  of  some  other  form  of  so-called  smoke- 
consumer.  If  economy  in  the  use  of  fuel  is  an  important  con- 
sideration, small  and  overworked  boilers  may  give  way  to  others 
which  provide  a more  liberal  allowance  of  heating-surface.  The 
degree  of  perfection  attained  in  any  or  all  of  these  particulars  is 

! Slightly  simplified  (by  permission)  from  “ Locomotive  Sparks.”  New 
York,  John  AViley  & Sons,  1902. 


208 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


in  fact  a matter  which  is  entirely  within  the  choice  of  the  designer, 
subject  only  to  such  limitations  of  cost  as  may  be  imposed  by 
business  considerations. 

In  passing  from  stationary  power-plants  to  moving  power-plants 
in  the  form  of  locomotives,  the  designer  gives  up  his  freedom  of 
choice  with  reference  to  many  matters  of  detail,  and  finds  himself 
confronted  with  the  necessity  of  having  his  apparatus  conform  to 
certain  general  conditions.  The  work  which  his  boiler  and  engine 
are  to  do  must  be  made  to  appear  in  the  motion  of  the  plant  itself 
and  its  attached  train.  Hence  the  heat-energy  of  the  fuel  must 
be  transformed  into  work  by  as  direct  a process  as  is  practicable. 

The  stationary  plant  runs  at  a fixed  speed  and  usually  at  a 
fairly  constant  load : the  locomotive  must  run  at  all  speeds ; it 
must  climb  hills,  pulling  slowly  and  hard,  and  it  must  roll  rapidly 
into  valleys,  holding  back  a train  which  would  push  it  on  at  still 
higher  speeds. 

Important  elements  must  be  adapted  one  to  another,  and  there 
must  be  an  entire  omission  of  many  details  which  in  good  practice 
are  regarded  as  necessary  to  the  economical  working  of  a stationary 
plant.  The  moving  parts  of  a stationary  engine  work  in  a sub- 
stantial frame,  which  in  turn  is  bolted  to  a massive  foundation, 
while  the  frame  of  a locomotive  is  suspended  by  springs  from 
axles  carried  by  wheels  which  are  supported  by  a yielding  and 
uneven  track.  The  action  of  the  stationary  engine  can  be  one  of 
precision,  and  delicate  and  precise  devices  may  be  embodied  in  its 
mechanism  which  are  not  at  all  admissible  in  the  less  rigid  struc- 
ture of  the  locomotive.  The  stationary  engine  is  protected  from 
the  weather  and  from  dust,  while  the  locomotive  must  give  no 
trouble  if  worked  in  rain  or  snow,  or  in  clouds  of  dust. 

The  designer  of  a locomotive,  moreover,  is  forced  to  recognize 
that  the  machine  with  which  he  is  concerned  constitutes  but  one 
of  many  elements  which  go  to  make  up  the  material  property  of 
a railroad.  The  width  between  the  wheels  is  prescribed  by  the 
gage  of  the  track,  and  the  length  of  the  wheel-base  by  the  curva- 
ture of  track,  the  length  of  turn-tables,  and  the  dimensions  of  other 


EXPLAXATIOX. 


209 


facilities  at  the  terminals  of  the  road.  The  extreme  width  and 
height  of  the  machine  are  also  limited,  for  the  locomotive  must 
pass  by  station-platforms,  underneath  bridges,  and  through 
tunnels. 

Despite  such  limiting  conditions  as  these,  the  locomotive 
designer  has  for  many  years  been  under  the  necessity  of  produ- 
cing locomotives  which  will  carry  greater  loads  and  move  at  higher 
speeds  than  those  which  have  preceded  them.  Locomotives  which 
could  carry  twenty  cars  have  given  way  to  newer  and  larger 
machines  which  are  capable  of  carrying  forty  cars,  and  trains 
which  used  to  be  pulled  at  a speed  of  twenty-five  miles  an  hour 
must  now  be  carried  at  fifty  miles  an  hour. 

With  restraining  conditions  fixing  limits  which  are  absolute, 
and  acting  under  the  influence  of  a growing  demand  for  increased 
power,  the  locomotive  designer  has  been  forced  to  regard  economy 
in  fuel  as  a matter  of  secondary  importance.  The  same  is  true  of 
the  problems  of  reducing  noise  and  abating  smoke.  He  knows 
that  smoke  from  a locomotive  can  be  suppressed,  but  he  also 
knows  that,  in  accomplishing  this,  the  firing  will  be  interfered 
with  and  the  power  of  the  locomotive  will  be  reduced.  There  is, 
in  fact,  no  serious  defect  in  the  working  of  the  modern  locomotive 
that  is  not  appreciated  by  the  designer.  He  allows  defects  to 
exist  because  all  efforts  to  overcome  them  appear  to  work  to  the 
disadvantage  of  more  important  characteristics  of  his  machine. 

The  achievements  of  the  locomotive  designer,  in  the  face  of  all 
these  difficulties,  are  illustrated  by  the  figure  on  page  210,  which 
shows  two  power-plants,  each  of  a thousand  horse-power.  Both 
are  drawn  to  the  same  scale,  so  that  a comparison  discloses  their 
relative  dimensions. 

The  drawings  tell  their  own  story.  Those  of  the  stationary 
plant  cover  an  area  of  paper  many  times  greater  than  that 
covered  by  the  drawings  of  the  locomotive,  and  yet  the  power- 
capabilities  of  the  two  plants  are  the  same.  Evidently  a con- 
struction that  enables  the  power  of  the  smaller  apparatus  to 
equal  that  of  the  larger  must  be  unusually  compact  and  effective. 


NATURE  OF  EXPLANATION. 


211 


SECTION  157. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  EXPLANATION. 

Explanation  (or  exposition)  is  the  commonest  form  of  dis- 
course. One  can  hardly  answer  a question  that  begins 
with  why  or  how  without  explaining.  You  compose  an 
explanation  whenever  you  recite  at  school,  or  direct  a 
stranger  to  the  post  ofhce,  or  tell  a classmate  how  to 
play  a game.  Success  in  a trade  or  a profession  depends 
largely  on  one’s  power  to  explain  a subject  with  accuracy 
and  effectiveness. 1 

The  art  of  explaining,  then,  is  of  the  highest  impor- 
tance in  all  practical  affairs.  You  should  keep  it  in 
mind,  not  only  in  writing  essays,  but  in  your  lessons  in 
history,  in  literature,  in  language,  and  even  in  geometry 
and  algebra. 

Make  a list  of  several  subjects  from  each  of  your  studies  on 
which  you  could  write  explanations. 

Discuss  this  list  with  the  teacher  and  your  classmates,  revise 
it,  and  copy  it  into  your  notebook  for  future  use. 

SECTION  158. 

THE  NATURE  OF  EXPLANATION. 

The  business  of  explanation  is  to  make  a subject  clear 
in  the  mind  of  the  reader  or  hearer.  A familiar  example 
will  illustrate  this  process  of  clearing  up  a subject. 

Suppose  you  have  to  explain  baseball  to  a Frenchman  who 
has  never  seen  the  game  played  and  perhaps  has  never  heard  of 


1 See  Section  1 on  “ The  Uses  of  Composition  ” (pp.  3-6). 


212 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


it.  You  take  him  out  to  the  field  and  say  nothing.  What  are 
his  first  impressions  ? He  sees  a man  standing  over  a white  plate 
with  a stick  in  his  hand.  Another  man  throws  a ball  over  the 
plate.  A third  person,  who  is  not  playing,  calls  out  something. 
The  first  player  throws  down  his  stick  and  gives  up  his  place  to 
a fourth  man,  or  he  hits  the  ball  and  runs  down  a path  to  a 
place  where  a fifth  man  is  standing,  or  perhaps  he  hits  the  ball 
but  does  not  run.  And  so  the  game  goes  on.  Of  course  the 
Frenchman  has  no  notion  of  what  it  is  all  about.  He  cannot 
even  guess  why  the  man  with  the  stick  sometimes  runs  down 
the  path  and  sometimes  remains  in  his  place ; or  why  presently 
the  men  in  one  kind  of  uniform  come  in  from  the  field  and  sit 
down  in  the  shade,  only  to  go  out  again  after  a time.  When  he 
had  watched  three  or  four  innings  he  would  no  doubt  be  utterly 
confused  by  all  these  meaningless  actions. 

Suppose,  now,  you  attempted  to  explain  the  game  by  taking 
up  each  incident  as  it  occurred.  You  would  ’only  make  matters 
worse.  To  give  the  Frenchman  a clear  idea  of  the  subject,  you 
would  have  to  proceed  in  a very  different  way.  You  would 
begin  by  telling  him  how  the  field  is  laid  out,  and  how  many 
men  there  are  on  a side.  Then  you  would  come  to  the  positions 
and  duties  of  each  player.  These  you  would  take  up  in  order. 
First  you  would  explain  what  the  batter  has  to  do  ; then,  perhaps, 
you  would  pass  on  to  the  pitcher  and  the  catcher  ; then  to  the  first 
baseman.  Next  you  might  inform  him  of  the  different  ways  in 
which  the  batter  can  get  to  first  base  (either  by  hitting  the  ball  or 
by  a ‘‘  base  on  balls  '’)  and  of  what  he  has  to  do  to  ‘‘  make  a run.” 

In  other  words,  instead  of  letting  the  Frenchman  try  to  under- 
stand all  the  acts  of  the  game  in  the  order  in  w^hich  they  took 
place,  you  would  rearrange  them  entirely.  You  would  bring 
together  incidents  that  did  not  occur  in  the  same  innings,  and 
would  separate  other  incidents  that  came  close  together  in  the 
actual  game.  Thus,  when  you  had  finished,  the  Frenchman  w^ould 
feel  that  all  the  confusing  facts  had  been  sorted  out  and  so  clearly 
arranged  that  he  could  now  see  how  the  game  went. 


NATURE  OF  EXPLANATION. 


213 


This  is  the  secret  of  good  explanation.  Facts  and 
ideas  are  so  rearranged  that  related  things  are  brought 
together  in  groups,  and  one  group  is  considered  before 
the  next  is  taken  up. 

Turn  to  Dr.  Van  Dyke’s  explanation  of  ‘‘The  Smudge” 
(p.  199),  and  observe  how  each  step  in  the  process  is  explained 
separately.  First  he  tells  the  purpose  of  the  smudge  ; then,  how 
you  may  fail  in  your  first  attempt ; then  he  directs  you  to  start 
your  fire ; then  he  informs  you  what  material  will  make  the 
thickest  smoke  ; then,  in  what  condition  the  fire  must  be ; and 
finally,  how  to  complete  the  smudge.  In  carrying  out  his  direc- 
tions, you  might  get  your  moss  and  rotten  bark  first,  or  you  might 
begin  by  starting  the  fire.  But,  in  order  to  explain  the  process 
clearly,  the  facts  must  be  arranged  as  if  the  separate  parts  of  the 
process  were  quite  distinct  and  always  took  place  in  a fixed  order. 

So  in  the  fourth  paragraph  of  “ The  Siege  of  Arcot”  (p.  352), 
Macaulay  sums  up  the  condition  of  the  beleaguered  town  as 
follows  : — “ The  walls  were  ruins,  the  ditches  dry,  the  garrison 
reduced  by  casualties,  provisions  were  scanty.”  These  facts  do 
not  stand,  you  will  observe,  in  the  actual  order  of  time.  The 
destruction  of  the  walls,  for  example,  did  not  precede  the  drain- 
ing of  the  ditches ; nor  was  the  garrison  reduced  before  the 
provisions  ran  low.  Macaulay  has  rearranged  the  facts  so  that 
we  may  understand  them  better  in  their  relations  to  the  whole 
subject. 

We  often  say,  after  hearing  or  reading  a good  explana- 
tion, ‘‘  Yes,  I see  now  how  it  goes.”  This  natural 
figure  of  speech  has  a real  significance.  The  facts  are 
now  so  arranged  in  our  minds  that  we  can  see  them  all 
together,  as  if  they  were  laid  out  before  us  in  a map 
or  diagram.  They  are  easy  to  comprehend  because 
they  have  been  properly  sorted  and  arranged. 


214 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  159. 

NOTES  FOR  AN  OUTLINE  OR  PLAN. 

Before  you  begin  to  write  an  explanation,  make  a 
plan  or  outline. 

If  the  explanation  is  short,  — a recitation  in  the  class, 
for  instance,  — a very  simple  plan  will  do.  Two  or 
three  topics  (or  heads)  under  which  to  group  your 
material  will  probably  be  sufficient.  These  you  can 
often  frame  without  putting  pen  to  paper.  They  may 
take  the  form  of  sentences  or  may  consist  in  a phrase 
or  even  a single  word ; but,  when  they  are  arranged  in 
a clear  and  logical  order,  they  give  you  a plan  for  your 
explanation. 

If  the  explanation  is  longer  and  more  complicated, 
further  preparation  is  necessary.  You  will  need  to 
make  notes  of  the  various  points  and  to  arrange  the 
notes  before  you  put  your  outline  together. 

The  need  of  a plan  in  such  a case  is  clear  enough.  When  you 
think  over  your  subject,  you  will  discover  that  there  are  a good 
many  more  points  to  explain  than  you  at  first  supposed.  If  you 
write  without  a plan,  these  points  will  crop  up  from  time  to  time 
in  the  wrong  places.  While  you  are  composing  the  third  para- 
graph, for  example,  something  may  occur  to  you  that  ought  to 
have  gone  into  the  first.  Thus  you  will  either  lose  track  of  your 
subject  or  be  forced  to  begin  over  again. 

First  jot  down  as  many  topics  as  you  can  think  of 
that  ought  to  go  into  your  explanation.  Then  look 
over  the  list,  and  insert  whatever  else  occurs  to  you. 
It  may  be  well  to  discuss  the  list  with  your  family  or  a 
classmate.  Be  sure  to  cover  everything  that  one  might 


THE  KEY-SENTENCE. 


215 


reasonably  ask  you  about  the  subject,  but  do  not  go  into 
detail  too  minutely,  or  you  may  never  get  through. 

Make  notes  for  the  plan  of  an  explanation  of  some  topic  in 
the  list  which  you  have  entered  in  your  notebook  (p.  211). 

After  discussing  these  topics  and  revising  them,  copy  them 
into  your  notebook  for  reference. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — Additional  exercises  here  should  be  drawn  from 
subjects  which  the  pupils  have  entered  in  their  notebooks  (Section  157). 

SECTION  160. 

THE  KEY- SENTENCE. 

In  making  notes  of  the  topics  which  you  must  cover 
in  your  explanation  (Section  169),  you  will  doubtless 
have  arranged  your  material  to  some  extent.  Still,  the 
notes  are  probably  a good  deal  mixed  up.  Your  next 
task  is  so  to  arrange  them  that  you  can  make  a plan  or 
outline. 

As  a first  step,  you  may  often  set  down,  in  a single 
sentence,  the  gist  or  chief  principle  of  the  whole  subject 
you  are  to  explain.  This  key-sentence  ^ (as  it  is  often 
called)  will  be  a kind  of  summary  of  the  whole  explana- 
tion or  essay.  It  may  take  the  form  of  a definition. 

Thus,  if  you  are  about  to  write  an  explanation  of  football,  your 
sentence  may  run  as  follows  : — 

“Football  is  a game  in  which  two  teams  of  eleven  men  each 
attempt  by  force  and  strategy  to  carry  a ball  to  one  end  or  the 
other  of  a field.” 

Under  this  general  statement  you  can  bring  whatever  you  have 
to  say  in  your  explanation. 

1 It  may  he  compared  to  the  sentence  which  summarizes  a paragraph 
(p.  265),  the  “ topic  sentence,”  as  it  is  termed. 


216 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


So,  again,  a steam-engine  has  been  defined  as  an  apparatus  for 
doing  work  by  means  of  heat  applied  to  water.”  Under  that 
summary  statement  you  can  bring  anything  that  is  necessary  to 
explain  the  working  of  the  most  complicated  engine. 

Sir  John  Lubbock’s  “ Fertilization  of  Plants”  (p.  203)  may  be 
summed  up  in  the  sentence,  “ The  purpose  of  the  complex 
organization  of  flowers  is  to  attract  insects  which  will  carry  the 
pollen.from  flower  to  flower.”  The  idea  contained  in  this  sentence 
determines  the  structure  and  the  limits  of  the  whole  explanation. 

1.  Make  a key-sentence  which  shall  express  the  gist  of  Dr.  Van 
Dyke’s  explanation  of  ‘‘  How  to  Make  a Smudge  ” (pp.  199-200); 
of  Grey’s  ^‘Australian  Kangaroo  Hunt”  (pp.  201-2).  Compare 
and  discuss  the  sentences  that  you  make. 

2.  Write  key-sentences  which  would  state  the  gist  or  substance 
of  the  explanations  for  which  the  separate  topics  have  already 
been  written  in  your  notebook. 


SECTION  161. 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  TOPICS. 

The  topics  which  you  have  written  out  (Section  159) 
you  may  regard  as  your  raw  material,  and  the  key- 
sentence  (Section  160)  as  the  clue  which  will  reduce 
this  confused  mass  of  topics  to  intelligible  order.  The 
key-sentence  will  almost  always  suggest  to  you  how 
to  arrange  the  explanation,  for  it  will  make  clear  to 
your  own  mind  the  most  important  parts  of  the  subject. 
Until  you  have  such  a clue,  no  one  arrangement  will 
present  any  advantage  over  another. 

You  should  now  bring  topics  that  belong  together 
into  groups  which  shall  stand  for  the  natural  divisions  of 
the  subject. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  TOPICS. 


217 


In  Grey’s  explanation  of  an  ‘‘  Australian  Kangaroo  Hunt  ” 
(pp.  201-2),  all  the  points  which  set  forth  the  alertness  and 
the  appearance  of  the  hunter  are  brought  together  in  the  first 
paragraph.  If  you  were  making  a plan  of  this  explanation, 
these  points  would  fall  naturally  into  a single  group. 

When  the  groups  have  developed  themselves,  the 
next  step  is  to  arrange  them  in  what  seems  most  likely 
to  be  a clear  and  simple  order.  Then  number  the 
groups,  and  write  down  for  each  one  a topic-word  or 
topic-sentence  to  suggest  its  contents.  These  words 
or  sentences,  when  written  out  in  order,  will  constitute 
your  plan.  At  the  head  of  it  write  the  key-sentence. 

Afterwards  you  can  take  up  each  group  of  topics  and 
arrange  and  rearrange  its  contents  until  they  stand  in  a 
logical  and  natural  order.  When  this  is  done,  you  have 
made  a good  start  on  your  explanation,  for  you  have 
accomplished  the  most  important  thing  of  all,  the  clear 
arrangement  of  your  material. 

If  you  are  to  explain  the  production  of  cotton,  for  example, 
the  key-sentence  might  be,  The  object  of  the  cultivation  is  to 
produce  the  largest  possible  amount  of  clean  long-fibred  cotton.” 
The  topics  might  fall  into  such  groups  as  the  preparation  of  the 
ground,  the  sowing  of  the  seed,  the  cultivation  of  the  crop,  the 
picking,  the  ginning  and  baling,  with  perhaps  a conclusion  on 
the  uses  of  cotton. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — Practice  in  making  key-sentences  and  arranging 
topics  must  be  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  pupils  and  to  the  nature  of  their 
subjects.  In  short  oral  compositions,  the  process  will  be  much  simplified. 
In  compositions  of  considerable  length  or  on  complicated  subjects,  it  will 
be  more  elaborate.  The  pupils  should  be  made  to  see  how  the  preliminary 
statement  of  the  key-sentence  may  make  all  the  difference  between  merely 
“writing  something  about”  a subject  and  explaining  it  clearly  and  fully. 
To  rewrite  a confused  explanation  on  the  plan  here  laid  out,  will  bring 
home  to  them  the  value  of  a preliminary  arrangement  of  topics. 


218 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  162. 

THE  INTRODUCTION  IN  EXPLANATIONS. 

Your  plan,  or  outline,  is  now  finished.  It  begins  with 
the  key-sentence  in  which  you  have  summed  up  or  defined 
the  subject.  Under  this  you  have  written  a list  of 
well-arranged  topics,  and  under  each  topic  you  have 
written,  in  proper  order,  a number  of  details  which 
must  be  disposed  of  before  the  next  topic  is  taken  up. 

You  are  now  ready  to  begin  the  actual  writing  of 
your  explanation,  and  the  outline  will  guide  you  in 
composing  the  whole  essay. 

Most  explanations  require  an  introductory  paragraph 
of  some  kind. 

The  introduction  should  contain  a concise  and  definite 
statement  of  what  you  mean  to  explain.  The  summary 
which  you  have  already  constructed  in  a single  sentence 
will  help  you  here.  Sometimes  you  will  be  able  to  use 
it  as  it  stands  ; or  it  may  be  expanded  and  broken  up 
into  two  or  three  sentences. 

The  introduction  is  also  the  place  for  any  preliminary 
remarks  that  you  desire  to  make.  These  may  include  — 

1.  Your  reasons  for  undertaking  the  explanation,  if  these  affect 
either  the  selection  of  your  material  or  its  arrangement,  or  if  there 
is  any  other  ground  for  mentioning  them. 

2.  Mention  of  the  special  audience  to  whom  the  explanation  is 
addressed  or  for  whom  it  is  intended,  in  case  the  character  of  the 
audience  forces  you  to  treat  the  subject  in  a peculiar  or  unexpected 
way. 

3.  A statement  of  the  order  in  which  you  purpose  to  take  up 
the  several  parts  of  the  subject. 


TKANSITION. 


219 


Of  course  you  will  not  include  any  one  of  these 
three  matters  in  the  introduction  unless  it  is  needed. 

In  a short  essay,  the  introduction  will  usually  fill  one 
paragraph,  sometimes  two.  It  should  never  be  very 
long.  It  is  better  to  begin  somewhat  abruptly  than  to 
weary  your  reader  by  unnecessary  talk  before  you  come 
to  the  point. 

In  a book  the  first  chapter  often  serves  as  the  introduction.  Thus 
Professor  Goss’s  explanation  of  the  locomotive  (pi).  207-10)  is  Chapter  I of 
his  hook  on  “ Locomotive  Sparks.” 

Write  an  appropriate  introduction  for  the  explanation  of 
which  you  have  already  prepared  a plan  or  outline  (Section  161). 

Before  beginning  the  introduction,  decide  which  of  the  three 
types  mentioned  on  page  218  you  wish  to  follow. 

SECTION  163. 

TRANSITION. 

When  you  are  started  on  the  actual  writing  of  your 
explanation,  how  can  you  be  sure  that  the  reader  will 
follow  you  and  see  all  the  facts  in  just  the  way  you 
intend  ? He  will  not  have  before  him  the  plan  which 
you  are  using.  All  that  he  has  to  guide  him  is  what 
you  have  said  in  your  introduction.  How  can  you  pre- 
vent him  from  losing  the  thread  ? 

The  surest  way  is  to  give  the  reader  notice  of  each 
new  step  in  the  explanation.  This  notice  comes  natu- 
rally in  the  transition  from  paragraph  to  paragraph.  It  may 
be  given  by  a single  word  like  however  or  moreover  ; by 
a phrase  like  in  the  meanwhile  or  on  the  other  hand ; or 
sometimes  by  a complete  sentence,  when  the  connection 
is  abstruse,  or  else  for  any  reason  must  be  made 


220 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


especially  clear.  In  every  case,  the  notice  should  be  so 
distinct  that  the  reader  cannot  miss  it.  Do  not  let  him 
pass  from  one  step  in  the  explanation  to  another  without 
being  aware  of  his  progress. 

It  is  often  of  great  assistance  to  the  reader  to  begin 
a new  paragraph  with  some  reference  to  what  precedes. 

Professor  Goss,  for  example,  begins  one  paragraph  with  ‘‘  In 
passing  from  stationary  power-plants  to  moving  power-plants  ” 
(p.  208),  and  another  with  ‘‘  Despite  such  limiting  conditions.” 

Lubbock  begins  some  of  his  paragraphs  as  follows  : In  species 
where  the  pollen  is  wind-borne  ” ; ‘‘  Now,  why  has  the  flower  this 
peculiar  form  ? ” He  also  employs  paragraphs  of  a single  sen- 
tence or  of  two  sentences  to  emphasize  transition:  as,  — ‘‘What, 
then,  is  the  use  and  purpose  of  this  complex  organization?”  and 
“ Let  us  now  apply  these  views  to  a few  common  flowers.  Take, 
for  instance,  the  white  dead-nettle.”  In  each  case  the  reference 
knits  the  explanation  more  closely  together,  and  makes  it  easier 
to  keep  all  the  parts  in  mind  at  the  same  time. 

Remember  that  the  sense  of  clear  arrangement  which 
a good  explanation  gives  the  reader  is  dependent  on 
bringing  like  topics  together  into  groups,  and  that 
ordinarily  these  groups  are  indicated  by  paragraphs. 
As  you  pass  to  each  new  paragraph,  then,  be  sure  that 
your  reader  is  aware  not  only  of  the  transition,  but 
also  of  the  nature  of  the  new  group  of  topics,  and  of  its 
relation  to  what  has  gone  before. 

Few  devices  do  more  to  make  an  explanation  clear 
and  agreeable  reading  than  this  distinctness  in  the 
transition  from  paragraph  to  paragraph.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  transition  is  indistinct  and  vague,  the 
explanation,  though  otherwise  perfectly  clear,  may  be 
difficult  and  tiresome  to  follow. 


EXAMPLES  IN  EXPLANATION. 


221 


SECTION  164. 

EXAMPLES  IN  EXPLANATION. 

The  use  of  examples  that  are  familiar  to  the  reader 
will  often  help  to  make  an  explanation  clear  and  vivid. 
An  apt  example  may  enforce  a general  principle  more 
effectually  than  a page  of  abstract  exposition. 

Grey  writes  his  explanation  of  an  Australian  Kangaroo 
Hunf  (pp.  201-2)  as  if  he  were  describing  a single  instance,  of 
such  a hunt.  Lubbock  drives  home  his  explanation  of  ‘‘The 
Fertilization  of  Plants’’  (p.  204)  by  examples  of  the  number 
of  pollen  grains  in  a peony  and  a dandelion,  and  then  adds, 
“ Let  us  apply  these  views  to  a few  common  flowers.” 

Moreover,  the  use  of  examples  will  test  your  own 
knowledge  of  the  subject.  If,  as  you  write,  specific 
examples  of  your  general  principles  or  statements  flock 
to  your  mind,  you  may  be  sure  that  you  have  a good 
command  of  the  subject.  On  the  other  hand,  if  you 
know  only  the?  general  principles,  and  cannot  find  specific 
instances  to  illustrate  them,  there  is  danger  that  your 
• knowledge  of  the  subject  is  not  very  deep. 

Examples,  however,  should  always  be  familiar  enough 
to  the  reader  to  assist  him  in  grasping  your  idea.  A 
farfetched  example  is  worse  than  useless.  To  employ 
such  an  illustration  is  to  explain  the  difficult  by  means 
of  the  more  difficult,”  — a very  serious  fault  in  com- 
position. 

1.  Bring  to  the  class  six  effective  specific  examples  used  in 
explanation. 

2.  Suggest  examples  that  would  be  useful  in  explaining  some 
of  the  subjects  for  which  you  have  made  plans  (p.  217). 


222 


THE  MOTHEK  TONGUE. 


SECTION  166. 

EXPLANATION  BY  COMPAEISON. 

In  many  cases  the  simplest  way  to  explain  one  thing 
is  by  comparing  or  contrasting  it  with  another. 

Dr.  Yan  Dyke  begins  his  explanation  of  how  to  make  a 
smudge  (p.  199)  by  telling  you  how  not  to  do  it.  Professor 
Goss  (pp.  207-10)  brings  out  the  difficulties  of  designing  a loco- 
motive by  comparing  it  with  a stationary  engine.  So,  in  study- 
ing the  structure  and  anatomy  of  animals,  it  is  not  unusual  to 
begin  with  the  consideration  of  some  familiar  animal,  like  the 
cat,  and  to  use  this  as  the  standard  of  comparison  from  which 
the  structure  of  other  animals  varies. 

If  the  method  is  to  be  useful,  the  comparison  must  be 
made  with  an  object  or  idea  which  is  already  familiar  to 
the  reader.  It  would  only  double  your  task  to  choose 
something  which  must  itself  be  explained.  Moreover, 
the  points  of  resemblance  should  be  clear  and  obvious, 
and  the  points  of  difference  not  too  subtle.  Finally,  as 
soon  as  the  comparison  has  served  its  purpose  of  aiding 
in  the  explanation,  you  should  drop  it  at  once. 

If  you  have  younger  brothers  or  sisters,  you  are  always 
explaining  things  to  them  by  comparison.  In  such  a case, 
be  sure,  in  the  first  place,  that  you  see  clearly  just  what 
it  is  that  they  wish  to  know.  Then  consider  what  they 
already  know  about  the  subject ; or,  if  it  is  quite  new  to 
them,  think  of  something  with  which  they  are  familiar, 
as  a starting-point  for  your  explanation.  Finally,  be 
sure  that  you  couch  your  explanation  in  terms  that 
they  understand ; or,  if  you  must  use  an  unfamiliar 
term,  explain  it  carefully  before  you  go  on. 


THE  USE  OF  DIAGRAMS. 


223 


SECTION  166. 

THE  USE  OF  DIAGRAMS. 

In  many  cases  you  can  hardly  make  an  explanation 
clear  without  using  diagrams  or  pictures.  It  is  impos- 
sible, for  example,  to  explain  a problem  in  geometry 
without  a diagram  ; and  without  a map  or  plan  it  would 
be  difficult  to  make  a stranger  understand  how  your 
town  is  laid  out.  So  in  most  explanations  of  machines 
and  of  the  shapes  of  plants  or  animals,  diagrams  or 
figures  are  necessary. 

If  you  try  to  reproduce  Sir  John  Lubbock’s  explanation  with- 
out the  diagrams,  you  will  at  once  recognize  their  value.  Without 
the  figures,  the  explanation  would  have  taken  much  more  space, 
and  after  all  would  have  been  far  less  clear  and  accurate.  The 
diagram  in  Professor  Goss’s  explanation  (p.  210)  shows  at  a 
glance  how  much  harder  it  is  to  design  a locomotive  than  a 
stationary  engine.  N^ote  also  the  use  of  diagrams  and  figures  to 
supplement  and  illustrate  the  definitions  in  any  large  dictionary. 

Diagrams  should  be  as  simple  as  possible,  and  should 
not  be  cumbered  with  superfluous  details.  A simple 
outline  drawing,  with  letters  or  numerals  for  reference, 
is  usually  sufficient. 

1.  Bring  to  the  class  three  examples  of  diagrams  that  have 
helped  you  to  understand  a subject. 

2.  Mention  three  subjects  wFich  it  would  be  difficult  or  impossi- 
ble to  explain  without  figures  or  diagrams. 

3.  Suggest  figures  or  examples  which  would  be  useful  in  explain- 
ing some  of  the  subjects  for  which  you  have  made  plans  (p.  217). 

To  THE  Teacher.  — Exercises  in  explanation  with  the  help  of  diagrams 
may  he  drawn  from  lessons  in  botany,  physiology,  or  physics. 


224 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  167. 

LIVELINESS  IN  EXPLANATION. 

The  aim  of  an  explanation  is  to  instruct;  but  that 
does  not  give  it  a right  to  be  dull.  A work  of  science 
may  be  as  fascinating  as  a novel.  This  offence  of  dull- 
ness brings  its  own  punishment : it  defeats  the  purpose 
of  the  explanation.  A prosy  writer  makes  a sleepy  reader. 

One  way  to  attract  and  hold  your  reader’s  attention 
is  to  draw  your  examples  from  familiar  objects  in  which  he 
may  already  be  presumed  to  take  some  interest.  Every- 
body likes  to  have  his  surroundings  made  more  intelli- 
gible to  him. 

Thus  Sir  John  Lubbock  (p.  204)  chose  the  white  dead-nettle, 
a common  English  weed,  to  illustrate  the  fertilization  of  flowers. 

When  the  method  of  dwelling  on  a single  example  is 
impracticable,  you  may  produce  a similar  effect  by  fre- 
quent allusions  to  familiar  things.  Such  illustrative  allu- 
sions not  only  sustain  the  reader’s  interest,  but  also 
bring  home  to  him  the  truth  of  your  explanation. 

In  any  case,  use  specific,  concrete  facts  to  illustrate  — 
and,  incidentally,  to  enliven  — your  discussion  of  general 
principles.  The  mention  of  particular  objects  of  sensation 
— of  things  which  the  reader  can  see  or  feel  or  hear  — 
will  stimulate  his  attention,  while  at  the  same  time  it 
makes  your  explanation  clearer  and  more  accurate. 

1.  From  some  explanation  that  you  have  lately  read  bring  to 
the  class  examples  of  specific  facts  used  as  illustrations. 

2.  Name  five  familiar  facts  which  you  could  use  to  illustrate 
and  lend  interest  to  the  explanations  planned  in  Section  160. 


CONCLUSION  IN  EXPLANATIONS. 


225 


SECTION  168. 

THE  CONCLUSION  IN  EXPLANATIONS. 

When  you  have  set  forth  in  their  due  order  the 
different  topics  of  your  explanation,  you  seem  to  have 
come  to  the  end.  To  stop  abruptly,  however,  may  con- 
fuse your  reader.  It  is  usually  better  to  clinch  his 
understanding  of  the  subject  by  means  of  a short 
conclusion. 

This  conclusion  should  ordinarily  sum  up  what  has 
preceded.  It  should  bring  the  results  together  in  a 
concise  form,  so  that  they  may  be  grasped  by  a single 
effort  of  the  mind. 

A mere  enumeration  of  the  several  topics  does  not 
make  a good  conclusion.  What  is  needed  is  a state- 
ment, in  condensed  form,  of  the  sum  and  substance  of 
the  essay.  If  you  have  not  used  your  key-sentence  ” 
(p.  215)  in  the  introduction,  it  may  come  in  here. 

Sometimes  the  conclusion  refers  back  to  the  intro- 
duction, reminding  the  reader  of  what  you  set  out  to 
do  and  showing  that  you  have  fulfilled  your  promise. 

In  an  essay  of  moderate  length,  a single  paragraph 
will  suffice  for  the  concluding  summary.  In  a book, 
the  last  chapter  often  serves  as  a conclusion. 

1.  Bring  to  the  class  an  example  of  a conclusion  which  sums 
up  an  explanation. 

2.  Write  paragraphs  which  might  serve,  either  by  way  of  sum- 
mary or  of  practical  application,  as  conclusions  to  the  explanations 
on  which  the  class  has  been  working  (p.  216). 

3.  Discuss  the  conclusions  of  the  last  two  or  three  explanations 
which  you  have  written,  and  try  to  improve  them. 


226 


THE  MOTHEK  TONGUE. 


SECTION  169.1 

EXPLANATOEY  DESCEIPTIOX. 

An  explanation  often  takes  the  form  of  a description, 
and  it  is  then  to  be  distinguished  from  a pure  or 
‘‘literary”  description  chiefly  by  the  difference  in  purpose. 
Scientific  descriptions  are  always  explanatory. 

The  difference  in  purpose  causes  some  differences  in 
the  form  of  the  description.  For  one  thing,  the  order 
is  generally  different. 

You  may  describe  the  view  from  a great  hill  (1)  in  order  to 
bring  out  the  physical  geography  of  the  region,  or  (2)  in  order 
to  convey  to  the  reader  your  impression  of  the  beauty  and  grandeur 
of  the  landscape.  In  the  former  case,  you  may  speak  first  of  the 
hills,  then  of  the  water  courses,  then  of  the  vegetation,  and  so  on. 
In  the  latter,  you  might  first  describe  the  view  to  the  eastward, 
then  that  towards  the  south  ; but  you  would  not  classify  the 
geographical  features  in  a formally  scientific  manner. 

Again,  an  explanatory  description  dwells  much  less  on 
the  specific  sensations  of  color,  sound,  and  movement. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  makes  more  use  of  general  terms. 

In  the  explanatory  description  of  the  view  above  mentioned, 
you  would  hardly  speak  of  ‘‘  blue  hills  on  the  horizon,’’  or  ‘‘  a 
flock  of  cawing  crows  in  mid-air.”  You  probably  would  use 
general  terms  like  elevations,  vegetation,  animal  life. 

Finally,  in  an  explanatory  description  the  structure 
must  be  made  more  apparent  to  the  reader;  transition 
must  be  strongly  marked,  and  proportion  must  be  care- 
fully adjusted. 

1 For  exercises,  see  pp.  238,  363-6.  Explanatory  description  is  some- 
times called  “circumstantial,”  and  literary  description  “ impressional ” 
or  “dynamic.” 


EXPLANATION  IN  RECITATIONS- 


227 


SECTION  170. 

EXPLANATION  IN  RECITATIONS. 

Every  recitation  is  an  explanation,  as  we  have  already 
seen  (p.  211).  Thus  you  have  many  opportunities  for 
practice  in  this  art,  even  when  you  are  not  writing 
essays. 

Whenever  you  recite,  then,  remember  that  you  are  to 
explain  the  subject  in  hand  as  clearly  and  effectively 
as  you  can.  Keep  this  in  mind  in  studying.  Do  not 
merely  learn  your  lesson  by  rote,  but  gather  knowledge 
to  use  in  an  explanation  of  your  own  which  shall  be  as 
good  as  that  in  the  text-book,  or  better.  Do  not  hesi- 
tate to  improve  on  the  book.  In  this  very  case,  for 
example,  if  you  can  set  forth  the  doctrine  of  explana- 
tion so  that  it  shall  be  clearer  than  the  book  makes  it, 
and  more  useful  to  the  other  pupils,  you  are  doing  them 
a service. 

Name  half  a dozen  subjects  which  you  have  explained  in 
recitation  in  the  last  two  days. 

The  following  directions  for  studying  will  be  found 
useful,  not  only  as  practice  in  explanation,  but  as  a 
means  of  learning  your  lessons  well  and  remembering 
them. 

First  read  the  lesson  through.  Then  go  back  and 
note  down  the  more  important  topics  on  a sheet  of  paper. 
Study  each  topic  in  order,  with  the  paper  before  you. 
Then,  still  referring  to  the  paper,  see  if  you  can  give 
a clear  and  accurate  explanation  of  each  of  the  topics. 
There  is  no  better  way  of  making  sure  that  you  really 
know  the  lesson. 


228 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


When  you  recite,  and  are  asked  to  explain  some  por- 
tion of  the  lesson,  the  teacher’s  question  will  give  you 
your  main  topic.  Start  from  that,  then,  and  try  to 
arrange  what  you  say  as  if  you  were  constructing  a 
paragraph.  Let  your  first  sentence  state  what  you  are 
going  to  do ; then  develop  the  subject  carefully  as  you 
go  along,  and  try  to  end  with  a sentence  that  shall  sum 
up  what  you  have  said. 


SECTION  171. 

EXPLANATION  IN  WRITTEN  TESTS.” 

Tests  ” and  written  examinations  afford  excellent 
practice  in  explanation ; for  they  require  you  to  collect 
and  express  your  knowledge  in  a limited  time.  Your 
mind,  therefore,  must  work  both  quickly  and  accurately, 
and  you  must  apply  the  principles  of  explanation  as  if 
they  were  second  nature. 

Before  you  write  the  answer  to  a question,  take  a 
minute  or  two  to  recall  what  you  have  learned  about  the 
subject  and  to  consider  how  you  can  best  set  forth  your 
knowledge.  Jot  down  on  a bit  of  paper  the  things  that 
you  must  mention,  and  the  order  in  which  to  write  about 
them.  Then  tell  what  you  know  as  clearly  as  possible. 

Note.  — Not  only  will  this  plan  give  you  valuable  practice  in  composi- 
tion, but  it  will  save  time  and  pay  well  in  its  actual  result  on  your  standing- 
in  school.  Remember  that  “test  papers”  and  examination  books  are 
marked  by  persons  who  have  a good  many  of  them  to  read,  and  who  often 
have  to  work  in  a hurry.  When,  therefore,  the  examiner  comes  to  a paper 
in  which  it  is  easy  to  grasp  the  facts,  he  inevitably  gives  it  a higher  grade. 
This  is  quite  proper.  You  cannot  pass  a good  examination  unless  you  can 
make  yourself  clear.  An  explanation  which  is  mixed  up  and  obscure 
usually  goes  back  to  a fragmentary  and  confused  knowledge  of  the  subject. 


EXPLANATION  IN  CONVERSATIONS. 


229 


SECTION  172. 

EXPLANATION  IN  CONVERSATIONS. 

Ordinary  conversation,  as  we  have  seen  (p.  211),  con- 
sists in  great  part  of  explanations  made  in  a few  brief 
sentences.  Here  one  has  continual  opportunity  for  valu- 
able training. 

Whenever  you  direct  a stranger  how  to  reach  a par- 
ticular point  in  your  town  or  city,  you  have  a good 
chance  to  use  your  skill  in  explanation.  It  is  far  from 
easy  to  state  the  various  turns  that  the  inquirer  must 
make,  so  clearly  and  concisely  that  he  shall  understand 
your  directions  quickly  and  carry  them  easily  in  his 
head.  A rough  map,  sketched  on  the  back  of  an 
envelope,  may  be  of  assistance.  Remember  your  own 
experiences  in  this  respect. 

In  an  oral  explanation,  try  not  to  ramble  and  repeat 
yourself.  Think  a moment,  and  settle  upon  the  most 
important  points.  Set  these  forth  lucidly,  and,  if  addi- 
tional details  are  necessary,  return  to  them  later. 

1.  You  propose  a game  of  croquet  to  your  cousin,  who  is 
visiting  you.  She  has  never  played  croquet.  Imagine  that  you 
go  to  the  croquet  ground  together  and  begin  to  play.  Your 
cousin  asks  questions,  in  reply  to  which  you  explain  the  game. 
Report  the  conversation,  with  appropriate  introduction  and  com- 
ment. Continue  the  explanatory  narrative  to  the  completion  of 
the  game. 

2.  Turn  to  one  of  the  Kollo  Books  ” (or  a similar  work) 
and  find  a piece  of  explanation  occurring  in  conversation.  Bring 
the  selection  to  the  class  for  discussion. 

3.  Imagine  a person  who  has  never  seen  a railroad.  Explain 
to  him  the  general  plan  of  construction. 


230 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  173. 

ABSTRACTS  OR  SUMMARIES. 

Not  infrequently  one  is  required  to  prepare  an  abstract 
or  summary  of  a paper  or  of  a passage  from  a book.  At 
school,  for  instance,  you  must  be  able  to  make  useful 
notes  on  your  reading ; in  business  your  employer  may 
ask  you  to  collect  and  present  to  him  the  substance  of 
a report  or  of  a number  of  documents. 

The  first  thing  to  do  in  such  cases  is  to  read  the 
paper  through.  Unless  you  do  this,  you  cannot  under- 
stand the  writer’s  purpose,  and  therefore  you  cannot 
judge  what  is  important  and  decide  what  you  may  omit. 
Your  comprehension  of  the  main  purpose  of  the  writer 
will  largely  determine  the  value  of  your  summary. 

The  important  points  should  then  be  clearly  stated 
and  duly  emphasized.  If  the  abstract  must  be  short, 
you  may  be  able  to  preserve  nothing  except  these  points. 
If  you  have  space,  insert  short  quotations  or  striking 
examples  from  the  original  document.  These  will 
impart  to  your  abstract  something  of  the  effect  of  the 
original  and  will  thus  make  it  a more  adequate  substi- 
tute. Be  careful,  however,  that  such  quotations  and 
examples  do  not  obscure  more  important  facts. 

Care  in  paragraphing  will  stand  you  in  good  stead ; 
for  the  indentations  in  the  page  will  indicate  at  once 
to  the  eye  the  main  divisions  of  the  subject,  and  will 
therefore  save  words.  So,  again,  you  can  put  minor  facts 
into  the  subordinate  clauses  and  phrases  of  your  sen- 
tences, and  thus  make  your  abstract  fuller  without 
lessening  the  emphasis  on  more  important  points. 


EXPOSITION  OF  CHARACTER. 


231 


A report  of  a lecture  or  address  is  of  much  the  same 
nature  as  an  abstract ; except  that  here  you  must  rely 
on  your  memory  or  on  your  notes  for  the  facts  that  you 
mean  to  include.  Always  try  to  apprehend  and  make 
clear  the  main  outlines  of  what  you  report:  that  is  essen- 
tial. Then  fill  in  the  report  with  illustrations  which 
the  lecturer  used  and  with  words  or  turns  of  phrase 
which  are  characteristic  of  him. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — Exercises  in  making  abstracts  or  summaries 
should  be  useful  in  developing  the  pupils’  discrimination  and  power  to  seize 
on  the  important  point.  If  they  keep  notebooks  in  history  or  literature, 
their  notes  should  be  carefully  watched : slovenly  habits  here  may  go  far  to 
defeat  the  purposes  of  their  work  in  composition.  If  time  allows,  training 
should  be  given  in  taking  notes  from  informal  lectures,  or  from  reading 
aloud.  In  some  cases  it  may  be  practicable  to  let  one  pupil  prepare  and 
deliver  an  informal  address  and  the  others  report  it.  The  ability  to  take 
good  notes  is  of  the  highest  practical  importance  both  to  pupils  who  go  to 
college  and  to  those  who  engage  in  business. 


SECTION  174. 

EXPOSITION  OF  CHARACTER. 

Description  of  the  character  of  an  individual  often  runs 
over  into  explanation  of  a type  of  character.  Sometimes 
no  clear  line  can  be  drawn  between  the  two. 

For  example,  you  might  describe  Washington’s  character  by 
explaining  the  highest  type  of  the  American  gentleman  and  then 
pointing  to  him  as  the  best  example  of  the  type ; or  you  might 
explain  what  qualities  an  American  gentleman  should  have  by 
describing  Washington  as  the  best  example. 

In  the  main,  the  description  of  an  individual  makes  free 
use  of  specific  facts  that,  taken  together,  would  apply  to 


232 


THE  MOTHEK  TONGUE. 


no  one  else ; and  the  explanation  of  a type  consists  of 
general  assertions  that  must  apply  to  all  similar  cases. 

Newman’s  explanation  of  ‘‘The  Gentleman”  (pp.  355- 
56)  is  a good  example  of  the  latter  class.  This  might 
be  called  an  extended  definition. 

Newman  specifies  a great  many  traits  of  character,  all  of 
which,  however,  come  under  the  general  statement  at  the  begin- 
ning, It  is  almost  a definition  of  a gentleman  to  say  that  he  is 
one  who  never  inflicts  pain.”  Without  the  minute  specification 
of  details,  the  explanation  would  be  incomplete ; without  the 
single  principle,  these  details  would  be  scattering  and  incon- 
clusive. 

Such  an  explanation,  then,  needs  both  the  general 
principle  to  give  it  point  and  unity,  and  an  application 
of  the  principle  to  the  many  cases  in  which  the  charac- 
ter may  manifest  itself. 

SECTION  175. 

CONCLUSION. 

We  have  seen  that  the  essence  of  explanation  is  the 
orderly  arrangement  of  the  material ; that  an  outline  or 
plan  is  of  the  greatest  assistance  in  perfecting  this 
arrangement ; that  an  introduction  and  a conclusion  in 
definite  terms  are  usually  necessary;  and  that,  as  you 
pass  from  one  step  of  the  explanation  to  another,  you 
should  give  notice  of  your  progress. 

In  writing  out  the  complete  explanation,  be  careful 
of  paragraphing  and  of  sentence  structure.  Effective 
paragraphing  is  the  surest  and  easiest  way  to  indicate  the 
divisions  of  a subject ; and  without  a variety  of  sentences 


EXPLANATION. 


233 


it  is  impossible  to  express  any  except  the  simplest 
relations  between  facts  or  ideas.  Be  particular,  too,  in 
the  selection  of  words,  for  carelessness  or  inaccuracy  in 
this  respect  may  seriously  obscure  your  meaning. 

Remember,  too,  the  value  of  diagrams.  In  many 
cases  you  can  give  more  help  by  a sketch  map  on  a 
scrap  of  paper  than  by  a page  of  description. 

Finally,  make  your  explanation  interesting  to  the 
reader.  This  you  can  accomplish  in  two  ways.  In  the 
first  place,  you  may  attach  it  to  his  own  experience  and 
to  objects  with  which  he  is  familiar.  It  always  arouses 
our  interest  to  discover  unsuspected  relations  between 
things  with  which  we  are  already  well  acquainted.  With 
this  in  view,  Sir  John  Lubbock  shows  how  necessary  a 
bumblebee  is  to  a nettle  flower  (p.  204),  and  Professor 
Goss  compares  a locomotive  with  a stationary  engine 
(p.  207). 

In  the  second  place,  do  not  hesitate  to  put  color  and 
action  into  an  explanation  when  you  can  do  so  without 
distracting  the  reader.  The  more  you  can  stimulate  his 
attention,  the  more  easily  he  will  follow  you.  Grey’s 
‘‘Australian  Kangaroo  Hunt”  (p.  201)  is  all  the  better 
for  being  lively  and  picturesque,  and  the  humor  of  Dr. 
Van  Dyke’s  directions  for  making  a smudge  makes  them 
easier  to  remember.  Do  not  confine  yourself  to  cold 
and  abstract  generalities.  Illustrate  and  exemplify  your 
general  principles  by  applying  them  to  specific  facts  or 
individual  cases. 

The  explanation  of  an  abstruse  subject  may  require 
some  study  before  it  is  fully  comprehended  ; but  the 
writer  should  not  add  to  the  difficulty  and  discourage 
the  reader  by  a dull  and  lifeless  style. 


234 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  176. 

EXERCISES  m EXPLANATION. 

In  preparing  the  explanations  in  Sections  176-181 
proceed  on  the  following  plan : - — 

Know  what  you  wish  to  say,  before  you  try  to  write. 

1.  State  the  point  of  your  explanation  clearly. 

2.  Write  a brief  outline  of  what  you  know  about  the  subject. 

3.  Note  items  which  are  not  clear  to  you. 

4.  By  reading,  observation,  and  conversation  with  persons  who 
are  familiar  with  your  subject,  fill  out  your  knowledge ; then 
complete  your  outline. 

5.  Write  your  explanation  from  the  outline.^ 


I. 

Jack,  a city  boy,  ten  years  old,  goes  to  his  grandfather’s  in  the 
country  to  spend  the  summer.  He  is  an  observant  boy,  and  asks 
many  questions,  among  them  the  following.  Answer  them  clearly, 
as  if  you  were  replying  to  Jack. 

1.  What  makes  the  days  longer  in  summer  than  in  winter? 

2.  Where  does  the  water  in  the  brook  come  from  and  where 
does  it  go  ? 

3.  How  do  fishes  breathe  ? 

4.  Why  do  you  drain  a swamp,  and  how  do  you  do  it? 

5.  How  do  you  make  butter  ? 

6.  How  do  they  make  smooth  boards  out  of  a tree  ? 

7.  How  came  this  ear  of  corn  speckled  red  and  white? 

8.  What  is  a tedder?  What  does  it  do?  and  how? 

9.  How  do  you  split  a big  boulder? 

10.  What  is  a toll  gate  ? Are  there  any  now  ? 

11.  What  is  a mortgage?  What  happens  if  it  is  not  paid? 

1 If  the  teacher  prefers,  the  explanation  may  be  oral. 


EXEKCISES  IN  EXPLANATION. 


285 


II. 

Imagine  that  your  cousin,  a girl  of  sixteen,  whose  home  is  in 
the  country,  visits  you  in  the  city.  You  explain  to  her  some  of 
the  unfamiliar  things  in  city  life,  as  follows  : — 

1.  How  the  streets  are  cleaned,  and  why. 

2.  A street-car  transfer;  what  it  is  ; how  it  looks;  when  and 
how  it  is  used. 

3.  The  ferry  boat ; its  use  and  general  appearance. 

4.  The  elevator  in  a large  building. 

5.  How  the  house  is  lighted. 

1 . Material  means  : gas  pipes,  electric  wires,  etc. 

2.  Supply  : thi-ough  a company ; how  measured  ; how  regu- 

lated. 

3.  Compare  the  advantages  of  kerosene,  gas,  and  electricity. 

6.  Explain  the  use  of  an  automatic  public  telephone. 

7.  Explain  how  your  city  is  governed.  (Prepare  an  outline.) 

8.  Describe  a grain  elevator. 

9.  Compare  facilities  for  obtaining  food-stuffs  in  the  city  and 
in  the  country. 


SECTION  177. 

Construct  outlines  for  explanation  or  description  of 
the  subjects  in  the  following  list.  Exchange  outlines 
for  criticism. 

Examples. 

T.  A pine  cone. 

1.  Its  appearance. 

2.  Its  structure. 

3.  The  ripe  and  the  unripe  cone  compared.  ^ ^ 

a.  Scales  : shape,  size,  arrangement.  ^ 

h.  Seeds : appearance,  number,  position. 

4.  Use  or  function  of  the  cone. 

5.  Varieties  of  cones,  on  difterent  pines. 


236 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


II.  A cup  and  saucer. 

1 . Manufacture. 

a.  From  what  material  made. 

Where  obtained. 

Process  of  shaping. 

Visit  to  a pottery  or  china  shop. 

b.  Decoration  and  glazing. 

c.  Firing. 

2.  Describe  an  exquisite  piece  of  china,  comparing  it  with 

a coarse  bit  of  pottery. 

1.  A paper  box.  10. 

2.  A wagon  wheel.  11. 

3.  A horseshoe.  12. 

4.  A paper  of  pins.  13. 

5.  Bone  and  its  uses.  14. 

6.  A wheelbarrow.  15. 

7.  My  best  penknife.  16. 

8.  Peanuts.  . 17. 

9.  Sweet  potatoes.  18. 

SECTION  178. 

From  the  exercises  below  pick  out  a subject  that  is 
familiar  to  you.  Prepare  an  outline  (as  in  Section  177); 
then  explain  the  subject  fully,  clearly,  and  in  accurate 
language,  to  your  classmates,  either  orally  or  in  writing. 

1.  What  are  tides?  How  are  they  caused?  What  is  their 
effect  ? 

2.  What  is  a freshet?  What  causes  it?  What  are  some  of 
the  effects  of  a freshet? 

3.  I had  an  orange  for  breakfast.  Where  did  it  come  from  ? 
How  was  it  grown?  How  did  it  get  to  me? 

4.  I live  in  New  England.  Tell  me  about  the  prairies. 

5.  1 live  in  Ohio-  Tell  me  about  the  mountains. 


How  hay  is  made. 

How  a roof  is  shingled. 

How  laws  are  made. 

How  a colt  is  broken. 

How  a dog  is  trained. 

How  a boy  has  a good  time. 
What  girls  like  to  do. 

How  Jack  raised  chickens. 
What  a normal  school  is. 


EXERCISES  IN  EXPLANATION. 


237 


6.  Kate  lives  in  Nebraska.  Tell  her  about  the  seashore. 

7.  John’s  home  is  in  Maine.  Tell  him  about  life  in  New 
Orleans. 

8.  Explain  the  process  of  canning  fruits  and  vegetables. 

9.  How  is  gold  obtained?  coined?  used?  What  makes 
it  valuable  as  coin?  in  the  arts? 

10.  Chestnuts : what  they  are ; how  they  look ; where  they 
grow ; squirrels  and  chestnuts ; boys  and  chestnuts ; a day  spent 
in  gathering  chestnuts. 

11.  Raisins  : what  they  are;  how  they  are  obtained;  how  pre- 
pared for  market ; how  used. 


SECTION  179. 

1.  Turn  to  the  oral  exercises  in  Section  176,  and  prepare 
introductory  sentences  for  each  explanation. 

Let  some  of  these  sentences  be  questions  : as,  — 

“ Do  you  know  how  we  harvest  ice  in  winter.  Jack  ? Let 
me  tell  you.” 

2.  Turn  to  your  Physics,  your  Physical  Geography,  or  your 
History ; find  a good  explanation,  and  study  the  introduction.  If 
there  is  no  introduction,  explain  the  author’s  reason  for  omit- 
ting it. 

3.  Invent  an  introduction  which  attracts  the  attention  of  the 
hearers  and  announces  the  subject  of  the  explanation. 

4.  Write  an  introduction  which  presents  the  scene  of  the 
explanation  to  the  hearer,  as  in  a letter  from  your  home  to  a 
Cuban,  or  a letter  written  from  Labrador. 

5.  In  one  of  your  text-books,  as  in  Exercise  2,  or  in  an  article 
in  a magazine,  find  an  explanation  with  an  effective  conclusion. 
Show  how  the  conclusion  rounds  out  and  enforces  the  explanation. 

6.  Exchange  the  last  explanations  you  have  written.  See  if 
the  composition  you  receive  has  an  effective  conclusion.  If  it 
has  not,  supply  one,  and  show  how  it  improves  the  explanation. 


238 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  180. 

1.  Explain  the  game  of  tennis  to  a friend  who  has  never 
played  it. 

2.  Describe  the  pleasures  of  skating.  Imagine  that  you  are 
writing  to  a cousin,  in  Southern  California,  who  has  never  learned 
to  skate. 

3.  Explain  to  a child  how  pearls  are  obtained.  Describe  the 
experience  of  a pearl-diver. 

4.  Your  cousin,  who  lives  in  California,  writes  to  you,  describ- 
ing the  rainy  season  there.  Reproduce  her  letter. 

Reply,  describing  a New  England  winter  or  a winter  in  the 
Middle  West. 

5.  Frank  Swift,  who  has  just  entered  college,  writes  to  a friend 
at  home,  describing  college  life.  Reproduce  the  letter,  remember- 
ing that  the  friend  has  never  been  at  college. 

6.  Tell  what  cocoanuts  are,  where  and  how  they  are  obtained, 
and  how  they  are  used. 

7.  Describe  the  sugar  cane  and  the  manufacture  of  sugar. 

8.  You  live  in  South  Carolina.  A cousin  in  Michigan,  who 
has  never  been  in  the  South,  sends  to  you  for  information  about 
rice  and  rice  swamps,  for  use  in  her  essay.  Reply,  giving  the 
desired  explanation. 

9.  Where  and  how  is  coffee  obtained?  How  is  it  distrib- 
uted ? How  is  it  used  ? 

10.  Describe  a yacht  to  a friend  who  has  never  seen  one.  Use 
a picture,  if  you  choose,  to  aid  you  in  your  description. 

11.  Describe  a yacht  race. 

12.  Explain  the  building  of  a birch  canoe.  (Read  the  account 
in  Hiawatha.”) 

13.  Read  a description  of  a bear  hunt.  Report  the  hunt  as  if 
to  a group  of  children,  making  the  conditions  clear  by  your 
explanation. 

14.  Report  a day’s  climbing  in  the  mountains,  introducing 
such  explanations  as  are  necessary. 


EXERCISES  IN  EXPLANATION. 


239 


SECTION  181. 

In  the  following  exercises,  use  such  sketches  and 
diagrams  as  are  necessary. 

1.  Explain  the  construction  of  a suspension  bridge.  Draw  a 
diagram  to  make  your  essay  clear. 

2.  Explain  the  phases  of  the  moon,  using  a diagram.  If  you 
do  not  understand  the  changes  in  the  appearance  of  the  moon, 
get  an  astronomy,  and  study  the  explanation  until  it  seems  clear 
to  you. 

3.  By  means  of  a diagram  and  a written  description,  explain 
the  construction  of  a canal  lock.  Show  how  the  lock  enables  a 
boat  to  pass  to  a higher  or  a lower  level. 

4.  Describe  a windmill,  using  a drawing  to  make  your  mean- 
ing clear.  Refer  to  the  drawing  by  letters. 

5.  What  is  a pulley?  How  is  it  used?  Explain,  using  a 
drawing,  a written  description,  and  an  illustrative  example. 
Read  your  explanation  to  your  classmates,  and  ask  them  to  show 
how  each  of  these  three  means  of  explanation  helps  the  others. 

6.  Find  in  your  History  some  description  which  is  made  plain 
by  means  of  a map  or  diagram.  Copy  both  the  description  and 
the  diagram,  to  present  to  the  class.  Show  how  each  reinforces 
the  others. 

7.  What  is  a watershed  ? Explain  and  illustrate  by  means 
of  a diagram  or  a map  of  a region  near  home. 

8.  Using  both  words  and  drawings,  describe  the  houses  of 
the  Esquimaux. 

9.  What  is  meant  by  crystallization?  Explain  the  term,  giv- 
ing examples  and  illustrating  by  drawings. 

10.  Describe  a lighthouse.  Tell  what  it  is  intended  to  do,  and 
then  show  how  it  does  it. 

11.  Bring  to  the  class  some  illustrated  piece  of  writing  which 
you  have  found  in  a book  or  magazine.  Show  how  the  pictures 
illustrate  the  text,  and  the  text  explains  the  pictures. 

12.  Explain  the  action  of  some  mechanical  toy.  Use  a diagram. 


240 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  182.1 

To  explain  an  idea  which  is  embodied  in  a visible  and 
tangible  shape,  as  in  a wheelbarrow  or  a steam-engine, 
is  less  difficult  than  to  explain  the  meaning  of  a word, 
a scientific  term,  or  an  abstract  idea.  Yet  explanations 
of  the  latter  kind  are  often  required  in  the  ordinary 
business  of  life.  Training  in  this  variety  of  com- 
position promotes  clearness  of  thought  as  well  as 
accuracy  of  expression. 

In  the  following  exercises,  try  to  get  a definite  idea 
of  the  meaning  of  each  term ; then  express  your  idea 
as  clearly  and  accurately  as  you  can.  Use  definitions, 
and,  when  you  can,  give  examples  from  your  own 
experience. 

1.  What  is  a noun?  How  does  it  differ  from  a verb?  from 
an  adjective  ? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  nominative  absolute  f 

3.  What  is  the  metric  system  ? 

4.  What  is  a complex  fraction  ? 

5.  What  are  customs  duties? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  the  expression  ‘‘  equation  of  payments  ”? 

7.  Explain  the  rule  for  finding  the  area  of  a rectangle. 

8.  What  is  meant  by  the  expression  ‘‘the  survival  of  the 
fittest  ” ? 

9.  Explain  why  one  should  not  say  “ I ainT  got  no  pencil. 

10.  Explain  the  botanical  terms  used  in  Sir  John  Lubbock’s 
description  of  a regular  flower  (p.  203). 

11.  Explain  the  terms  equator,  vernal  equinox,  longitude,  latitude, 
meridian,  parallel,  winter  solstice,  eclipse. 

12.  What  is  the  Classical  Course  in  your  school?  the  Commer- 
cial Course  ? the  General  Course  ? 


^ For  additional  exercises  in  explanation,  see  pp.  363-8. 


CRITICISM. 


241 


SECTION  183. 

CRITICISM. 

One  of  the  prime  objects  of  education  is  to  foster 
the  taste  for  reading  and  to  cultivate  a discriminating 
appreciation  of  the  best  books.  Accordingly,  every 
educated  person  needs  the  power  to  express  his  judg- 
ment of  what  he  reads.  Such  a judgment  is  called  a 
criticism  (from  a Greek  word  meaning  “ to  judge  ”). 
Almost  all  book  reviews  fall  under  the  head  of  criticism. 

Though  one  usually  knows  in  a general  way  what 
one’s  opinion  of  a book  is,  it  is  often  by  no  means  easy 
to  put  this  opinion  into  appropriate  words. 

Perhaps  the  quickest  means  of  defining  one’s  impres- 
sion of  any  book  is  to  compare  it  mentally  with  another 
book  of  a similar  nature.  Suppose,  for  example,  you 
wish  to  express  your  opinion  of  Hawthorne’s  House 
of  the  Seven  Gables.”  If  you  call  before  your  mind 
George  Eliot’s  “ Silas  Marner,”  which  likewise  deals 
with  the  inherited  effect  of  wrong-doing,  you  see  at 
once  that  Hawthorne  portrays  far  subtler  and  less 
tangible  characteristics  of  human  nature ; and  that, 
though  his  people  seem  real,  yet  they  do  not  quite  belong 
to  the  workaday  world  that  we  know.  This  observa- 
tion makes  you  note  the  constant  play  of  fantasy  and 
imagination  which  so  often  brings  HawThorne’s  stories 
to  the  verge  of  poetry,  and  your  criticism  is  well 
begun. 

You  may  often  use  such  a comparison  in  the  actual 
expression  of  your  judgment,  — that  is,  in  your  criticism 
of  the  book ; for  it  is  sometimes  easier  to  explain  what 


242 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


a thing  is  by  showing  what  it  is  not.  Dr.  Johnson,  one 
of  the  greatest  of  English  critics,  was  fond  of  this  method. 
Here  is  what  he  wrote  in  discussing  the  poetry  of  Alexan- 
der Pope : — 

If  the  flights  of  Dryden  are  higher,  Pope  continues  longer  on 
the  wing.  If  of  Dryden's  fire  the  blaze  is  brighter,  of  Pope’s  the 
heat  is  more  regular  and  constant.  Dryden  often  surpasses 
expectation,  and  Pope  never  falls  below  it.  Dryden  is  read  with 
frequent  astonishment,  and  Pope  with  perpetual  delight. 

Your  comparison,  however,  should  not  be  forced  or  far- 
fetched, nor  should  it  be  carried  out  in  wearisome  detail. 

In  writing  your  criticism,  make  plentiful  reference  to 
the  facts  of  the  book,  in  order  to  back  up  your  general 
assertions.  If  you  can  quote  a few  passages,  so  much 
the  better ; for  then  you  may  be  sure  that  your  reader 
will  understand  the  grounds  of  your  opinion.  A gen- 
eral statement,  not  thus  supported  by  quotations  or 
specific  references,  may  apply  to  so  many  books  that  it 
gives  the  reader  no  individual  idea  of  the  particular 
work  which  you  are  criticising. 

Do  not  confuse  criticism  with  faultfinding.  Almost 
any  one  can  point  out  some  blemish  in  even  the  greatest 
work;  but  such  carping  seldom  serves  any  useful  pur- 
pose. If,  on  the  other  hand,  you  can  suggest  the  power 
of  a work  or  indicate  its  beauties  and  excellences,  you 
may  add  to  your  reader’s  enjoyment  and  appreciation 
of  good  literature. 

Before  you  try  to  express  your  opinion  of  a book,  be 
sure  that  you  understand  the  author’s  purpose.  Do  not 
pass  judgment  on  Dickens’s  David  Copperfield  ” as  if 
you  thought  he  had  tried  to  write  an  exciting  story  of 


CRITICISM. 


243 


adventure,  or  on  Longfellow  as  if  he  ought  to  have 
written  in  as  martial  and  stirring  a strain  as  Sir  Walter 
Scott.  Let  your  estimate  include  an  appreciation  of 
the  author’s  aim. 

Finally,  remember  that  criticism  is  not  a bare  statement 
of  personal  preference.  The  mere  assertion  that  Dickens 
is  your  favorite  author,  or  that  you  like  Longfellow 
better  than  Bryant,  is  about  as  profitable  as  the  remark 
that  blue  is  your  favorite  color,  or  that  you  do  not  like 
tea  so  well  as  coffee.  It  may  interest  your  personal 
friends,  but  it  can  hardly  concern  any  one  else.  What 
your  criticism  should  do  is  to  analyze  your  impression,  to 
point  out  what  is  admirable  in  your  author,  and  perhaps 
in  part  to  define  the  means  by  which  this  admirable 
effect  is  produced.  In  this  way  criticism  is  analogous 
to  the  explanation  of  a character  (p.  231);  for  it  aims  to 
select  and  make  evident  those  traits  and  qualities  that 
give  a book  individuality  and  make  it  different  from 
any  other. 


To  THE  Teacher.  — Criticism  is  a very  advanced  form  of  composition. 
It  may  therefore  be  too  difficult  for  pupils  in  this  grade.  If  it  is  found 
desirable  to  attempt  it,  the  teacher  may  prepare  the  way  by  bringing  out 
diversities  of  opinion  in  a class-room  discussion,  and  by  insisting  on  the 
separation  of  mere  differences  of  taste  from  differences  of  judgment. 
Then  each  pupil  may  write  out  his  own  judgment,  supporting  it  by  con- 
stant reference  to  the  work  in  hand.  Such  practice  connects  itself  closely 
with  the  study  of  literature.  The  same  principles  apply  to  the  expression 
of  taste  and  judgment  in  other  branches  of  the  fine  arts.  Criticisms  of 
painting,  of  sculpture,  of  architecture,  or  of  music  are  of  the  same  nature 
as  criticisms  of  literature.  In  each  case  the  judgment  must  be  based  on 
knowledge  and  sympathy,  and  should  be  expressed  with  moderation  and  a 
fine  sense  of  proportion.  Above  all  things,  the  pupil  should  not  be  required 
to  attempt  impossible  things.  He  should  not  be  allowed  to  waste  his  time 
in  arranging  ten  American  poets  in  the  order  of  their  eminence,  or  other 
such  futile  tasks. 


244 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  184. 

ARGUMENT  AND  EXPLANATION. 

In  many  cases  there  is  no  substantial  difference 
between  argument  and  explanation;  and  even  in  cases 
where  there  is  a difference,  this  does  not  alter  the  fact 
that  every  argument  must  be  founded  on  an  adequate  explana- 
tion of  the  subject  in  hand. 

For  example,  suppose  you  think  that  the  afternoon  session  of 
your  school  ought  to  be  given  up,  or,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  long 
morning  session  should  be  divided  into  a morning  and  an  after- 
noon session.  In  either  case  you  can  best  make  other  people 
agree  with  you  by  explaining  clearly  and  forcibly  the  disadvan- 
tages of  the  present  system  and  the  advantages  of  the  system 
which  you  favor. 

The  main  distinction  between  explanation  and  argument 
is  a difference  of  purpose.  An  explanation  aims  to  impart 
knowledge  or  to  make  a subject  clearer.  An  argument 
aims  to  establish  or  change  the  opinion  of  the  hearer  or 
reader,  or,  it  may  be,  to  persuade  him  to  act  in  a par- 
ticular way.  In  an  argument,  we  assume  a difference 
of  opinion  among  reasonable  men,  and  endeavor  to  bring 
them  all  over  to  our  own  side  of  the  case ; in  an  explana- 
tion, we  assume  that  there  is  only  one  view  of  the  subject, 
and  set  forth  that  view  impartially. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — The  distinction  here  made  between  explanation 
and  argument  is  as  sharp  as  the  facts  warrant.  No  formal  definitions  are 
attempted,  for  such  definitions  must  he  so  qualified  that  they  are  rather 
a hindrance  than  a help  to  the  beginner,  and  the  adept  does  not  need  them. 
Argument  seldom  occurs  in  an  unmixed  form.  Explanation  and  argument 
run  into  each  other,  like  explanation  and  description,  or  description  and 
narration  (see  pp.  164, 190) . For  a detailed  treatment,  which  would  he  out  of 
place  in  this  book.  Baker’s  “Principles  of  Argumentation”  may  be  consulted. 


KINDS  OF  ARGUMENT. 


245 


SECTION  185. 

THREE  KINDS  OF  ARGUMENT. 

Arguments  may  be  divided  into  three  main  classes, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  questions  with  which 
they  deal : (1)  arguments  of  fact,  (2)  arguments  of  theory  or 
principle,  and  (3)  arguments  of  policy. 

An  argument  of  fact  aims  to  establish  or  disprove  an 
assertion  as  to  a definite  occurrence  or  state  of  things. 
Thus  the  following  propositions  might  be  argued,  pro 
and  con^  as  questions  of  concrete  fact : — 

The  Allerton  Bank  was  robbed  by  Thomas  Ackers  on 
March  3,  1886. 

King  Alfred  was  born  in  the  year  902. 

The  Trojan  War  actually  took  place. 

Richard  Roe  paid  John  Doe  five  hundred  dollars  on  the  tenth 
of  last  April. 

Gunpowder  was  invented  by  the  Chinese. 

An  argument  of  fact  is  commonly  addressed  to  per- 
sons who  are  assumed  to  be  impartial.  It  appeals  to 
their  reason  and  common  sense,  not  to  their  interests  or 
prejudices.  It  deals  with  concrete  questions  of  human 
knowledge  and  experience,  which,  if  there  is  evidence 
enough  available,  may  always  be  determined  beyond  a 
reasonable  doubt. 

An  argument  of  theory  or  principle,  like  an  argument  of 
fact,  is  addressed  to  the  reason  of  its  audience  and  not 
to  their  feelings  or  interests.  Unlike  an  argument  of 
fact,  however,  it  aims  to  establish  or  disprove,  not  a con- 
crete matter  of  human  experience,  but  either  a general 
law  or  principle  which  explains  a large  body  of  isolated 


246 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


facts,  or  the  applicability  of  such  a law  or  principle  to 
the  facts  in  question.  Propositions  of  this  kind  are  the 
following : — 

The  earth  and  the  other  planets  revolve  round  the  sun  as  a 
centre.  (The  Copernican  System  of  astronomy.) 

The  sun  and  the  planets  revolve  round  the  earth  as  a centre. 
(The  Ptolemaic  System  of  astronomy.) 

Matter  consists  of  molecules  which  are  composed  of  atoms. 

The  change  of  seasons  depends  on  the  inclination  of  the  earth. 

All  questions  of  scientific  and  philosophical  theory 
come  under  this  same  head,  and  so  do  questions  involv- 
ing the  applicability  of  some  principle  of  law  to  an 
admitted  body  of  facts.  Arguments  of  theory,  however 
abundant  the  evidence,  are  seldom  capable  of  deciding 
the  question  beyond  the  possibility  of  doubt.  At  times, 
however,  so  strong  a probability  may  be  established 
on  one  side  or  the  other  that  sensible  men  regard  the 
discussion  as  definitely  settled.  In  legal  questions,  the 
determination  lies  with  the  highest  court. 

An  argument  of  policy  differs  from  an  argument  of  fact 
or  of  theory  in  that  it  aims,  not  to  establish  or  disprove 
a fact  or  a principle,  but  to  persuade  the  person  to  whom 
it  is  addressed  to  act  in  accordance  with  the  belief  or 
the  wishes  of  the  speaker  or  writer. 

The  following  are  examples  of  questions  which  might 
produce  such  arguments  : — 

Shall  the  United  Street  Railway  Company  receive  permission 
to  lay  a double  track  in  Preston  Avenue  ? 

Shall  the  practice  of  coaching  from  the  side-lines  be  forbidden 
in  amateur  baseball  ? 

Shall  the  law  protecting  song  birds  be  strictly  enforced  ? 

Shall  the  United  States  withdraw  from  the  Philippine  Islands? 


ARGUMENTS  OF  FACT. 


247 


SECTION  186. 

ARGUMENTS  OF  FACT. 

An  argument  of  fact  usually  aims  to  prove  that  a 
definite  occurrence  did  or  did  not  take  place,  and  this 
it  can  do  only  by  citing  other  facts  as  proof.  In  such 
cases,  it  is  often  possible  to  reach  a conclusion  with 
which  a reasonable  man  cannot  disagree,  and  this  would 
always  be  possible  if  all  the  facts  could  be  discovered. 
In  other  words,  arguments  of  fact  are  based  on  evidence. 

Evidence  may  be  either  direct  or  indirect. 

If  a man  is  arrested  for  attempting  to  rob  a bank,  the  testi- 
mony of  a policeman  that  he  caught  him  drilling  holes  in  the 
safe  is  direct  evidence.  The  fact  that  the  defendant  was  seen  to 
run  from  the  building,  that  the  safe  was  blown  open,  and  that 
near  it  lay  a coat  belonging  to  the  defendant  is  indirect  evidence. 

Indirect  evidence  may  tend  to  establish  a fact  either 
(1)  by  antecedent  probability  or  (2)  by  sign. 

1.  An  argument  from  antecedent  probability  depends  on 
facts  which  tend  to  show  that  the  occurrence  in  ques- 
tion was  likely  to  happen. 

Thus,  the  fact  that  a man  was  a professional  burglar  might 
tend  to  make  it  probable  that  he  had  committed  a particular 
burglary;  so  also  his  possession  of  burglar’s  tools  and  his  being 
in  great  need  of  money. 

2.  An  argument  from  sign  is  based  on  facts  which  indi- 
cate that  the  occurrence  did  actually  happen  as  alleged. 

Thus,  in  a case  of  bank  robbery,  evidence  that  the  prisoner  was 
seen  running  away  from  the  building  and  that  his  coat  was  found 
near  the  broken  safe  would  be  grounds  for  an  argument  from 
sign ; for  such  facts  point  to  his  being  the  robber. 


248 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  187. 

ARGUMENTS  OF  THEORY  OR  PRINCIPLE. 

Arguments  of  theory  or  principle  aim  to  establish  the  best 
explanation  of  great  masses  of  facts ; or,  if  the  principle 
is  already  known,  to  show  that  a given  case  comes  under 
that  principle.  Such  an  argument  may  closely  resemble 
an  explanation  ; for,  to  establish  the  theory  or  to  decide  on 
the  principle  that  applies,  we  must  canvass  all  the  rele- 
vant facts  and  show  that  they  are  satisfactorily  explained 
and  harmonized  by  the  theory. 

Arguments  of  theory  are  necessary  at  every  new  step  in  science. 
Their  value  depends  on  the  thoroughness  with  which  they  discuss 
all  the  attainable  evidence  and  the  clearness  with  which  they  set 
it  forth. 

When  a certain  body  of  facts  may  be  explained  by 
either  of  two  scientific  theories,  that  one  which  accounts 
for  them  all  in  the  simpler  and  more  reasonable  way 
has  the  preference. 

Thus,  the  Ptolemaic  theory  of  astronomy  (which  held  that  the 
earth  is  the  centre  of  our  system)  and  the  Copernican  theory 
(which  held  that  the  sun  is  the  centre)  both  accounted  for  the 
motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  The  Copernican  theory,  how- 
ever, provided  a far  simpler  explanation  than  the  Ptolemaic,  and 
has  accordingly  been  universally  accepted. 

Arguments  on  questions  of  law  before  a judge  are 
arguments  of  theory;  for  the  facts  are  already  estab- 
lished, and  the  question  is,  What  principle  of  law 
applies  to  them?” 

In  the  nineteenth  century,  the  courts  of  New  Hampshire  were 
required  to  pass  upon  the  right  of  a mill  owner  to  erect  a dam 


ARGUMENTS  OF  POLICY. 


249 


and  thus  to  flow  lands  bordering  on  a pond  or  river.  The  case 
had  to  be  decided  on  one  of  two  principles.  On  the  one  hand, 
there  was  the  right  of  every  man  to  control  and  protect  his  own 
property;  on  the  other,  the  “right  of  eminent  domain,”  by  which 
the  state,  whenever  the  maintenance  of  the  right  of  private  prop- 
erty interferes  with  improvements  of  marked  public  benefit,  steps 
in,  and,  with  due  compensation,  overrules  the  claims  of  the  pri- 
vate owner.  The  court  decided  that,  since  the  interests  of  the 
community  called  for  the  building  of  dams  and  mills,  the  right 
of  the  shore  owners  to  keep  their  fields  unflooded  must  give  way. 
Here  all  the  facts  were  agreed  upon,  and  the  arguments  dealt 
merely  with  the  question  which  principle  of  law  was  applicable 
to  them. 


SECTION  188. 

ARGUMENTS  OF  POLICY. 

The  argument  of  policy  is  perhaps  the  commonest  of  the 
three  classes  of  argument.  Every  one  of  us  is  continu- 
ally called  upon  to  decide,  for  himself  or  another,  the 
question  whether  it  is  right  or  expedient  to  perform  a 
given  act.  On  such  occasions,  we  always  weigh  the 
pros  and  eons  and  thus,  whether  we  know  it  or  not, 
engage  in  an  argument  of  policy.  Almost  as  frequently 
we  try  to  persuade  some  one  else  to  agree  with  us,  and 
thus  the  argument  takes  definite  form. 

Arguments  of  policy  may  be  conveniently  divided 
into  two  classes,  according  as  they  address  themselves 
to  the  question  “ Is  it  right  ? ” or  the  question  ‘‘  Is  it 
expedient  ? ” 

In  a question  of  what  is  right,  the  argument  musl!^ 
detach  the  case  from  the  complexities  and  irrelevant 
details  that  obscure  the  real  issue.  It  must  often  put 


250 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


aside  all  consideration  of  loss  or  hardship  to  individuals 
and  apply  itself  to  proving  that  one  course  of  action  is 
morally  right,  and  that  the  other  is  morally  wrong. 
When  this  moral  question  is  settled,  the  argument  is 
practically  complete.  It  needs  only  a conclusion  appeal- 
ing to  the  hearer’s  conscience. 

In  a question  of  mere  expediency,  we  assume  that  both 
courses  of  action  are  right  and  maintain  merely  that  one 
of  them  is  more  advantageous  than  the  other.  Here  we 
must  consider  what  personal  interests  are  involved. 
We  must  show  our  hearers  that  the  decision  which  we 
favor  will  work  to  their  advantage,  — that  they  will  be 
better  off,  in  some  way,  if  they  join  our  side. 

In  such  an  argument,  we  should  not  lose  sight  of 
the  tastes  and  feelings  of  our  audience.  If  they  are 
prejudiced  against  our  cause,  we  must  seek  to  remove 
their  prejudice  by  tact  and  skill  in  introducing  the  sub- 
ject. If  they  are  inclined  to  favor  us,  we  must  take 
care  not  to  weary  them  or  make  them  suspicious  by 
unnecessary  preliminaries.  In  either  case,  we  must 
establish  cordial  relations  with  our  hearers  and  keep 
their  attention  alive. 

Always  put  yourself  in  the  place  of  your  hearers.  If  you 
realize  how  they  are  likely  to  feel  toward  your  case,  you  can  the 
more  readily  show  how  the  policy  that  you  favor  falls  in  with  their 
interests  and  how  the  opposite  policy  is  disadvantageous.  Your 
success  in  persuading  your  audience  will  depend,  in  great  part, 
on  the  skill  with  which  you  estimate  their  needs  and  interpret 
their  feelings. 

An  argument  of  policy  is  often  strengthened  by 
what  is  called  “ argument  from  authority,”  — that  is. 


PERSUASION. 


251 


by  citing  the  opinions  or  example  of  persons  whom 
your  hearers  respect  and  admire. 

One  very  practical  use  of  the  argument  of  policy  is 
in  letters  in  which  we  try  to  persuade  our  correspondent 
to  some  definite  action.  In  such  a letter,  we  should 
begin  by  explaining  clearly  what  the  action  is.  Then 
we  must  show  either  that  it  is  a necessary  action  because 
it  is  right,  or  that  it  is  expedient  because  it  is  for  our 
correspondent’s  interest. 

Such  a letter,  like  all  arguments,  should  give  the  impression  of 
fairness.  If  we  appear  to  see  only  one  side  of  a case,  we  expose 
our  judgment  to  suspicion.  If  there  are  disadvantages  in  the 
course  that  we  propose,  we  should  frankly  acknowledge  them  and 
then  prove  that  they  are  outweighed  by  the  advantages.  We 
should  also  remember  that  it  is  our  correspondent’s  interest  that 
is  in  question,  and  that  we  must  therefore  look  at  the  proposition 
from  his  point  of  view. 


SECTION  189. 

PERSUASION. 

It  follows  from  the  definitions  of  the  three  classes  of 
argument  (Section  185)  that  persuasion  is  concerned  only 
with  arguments  of  policy.  One  should  be  careful  in  an 
argument  of  fact  or  of  theory  not  to  include  anything 
which  would  unnecessarily  antagonize  a reader ; but,  in 
the  main,  those  arguments  assume  that  the  reader  is 
looking  for  the  truth,  and  that  his  feelings  are  not 
concerned. 

An  argument  of  policy,  on  the  other  hand,  has 
accomplished  only  a part  of  its  aim  when  it  has 


252 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


convinced  its  readers.  If  it  is  to  have  practical  results, 
it  must  also  move  them  to  action. 

The  only  way  to  move  most  people  to  action  is  to 
stir  their  feelings.  We  all  know  what  it  is  to  have  our 
reason  convinced,  and  yet  to  remain  indifferent  to  the 
whole  subject.  It  is  not  until  our  feelings  are  enlisted 
that  we  lose  this  spirit  of  indifference  and  are  ready  to 
exert  ourselves  and  make  sacrifices  in  order  to  carry 
the  matter  to  a conclusion. 

To  stir  the  feelings  of  our  readers  by  an  argument 
we  must  use  much  the  same  means  as  in  exposition, 
description,  and  narration.  We  must  cite  specific 
facts,  and,  so  far  as  possible,  we  must  enforce  the  abstract 
and  general  by  illustrations  and  examples  drawn  from 
the  reader’s  own  experience.  A man  who  will  be  bored 
by  a general  appeal  in  behalf  of  a society  for  the  pre- 
vention of  cruelty  to  animals,  will  often  contribute  liber- 
ally if  you  describe  specific  cases  of  cruelty  which  you 
have  yourself  seen. 

Persuasiveness  depends  on  establishing  in  the  reader’s 
mind  a warm  and  intimate  connection  between  his 
interests  and  the  policy  that  you  advocate. 

Even  in  a question  of  policy,  however,  our  arguments  should 
appeal  to  the  reason  as  well  as  to  the  feelings.  A demagogue 
may  excite  his  followers  to  inconsiderate  action  by  playing  upon 
their  emotions,  but,  in  the  long  run,  reason  and  conscience  form 
the  only  safe  basis  for  an  argument. 

In  any  case,  an  advocate  should  keep  his  temper.  If  he  has 
confidence  in  his  own  side,  the  tactics  of  his  opponent  will  not 
disturb  his  serenity.  Anger  or  undue  heat  is  commonly  inter- 
preted as  indicating  a weak  case,  and  is  pretty  certain  to  interfere 
with  an  effective  presentation  of  the  subject. 


THE  FORM  OF  AN  ARGUMENT. 


253 


SECTION  190. 

THE  FORM  OF  AN  ARGUMENT. 

One  of  the  chief  differences  in  form  between  an  argu- 
ment and  an  ordinary  explanation  is  that,  in  many  cases,  an 
argument  does  not  attempt  to  cover  the  whole  ground, 
but  passes  rapidly  over  the  points  in  which  both  sides 
agree. 

A text-book  on  civics  must  explain  all  branches  of  the  Federal 
government.  An  argument  to  prove  that  the  members  of  the 
Cabinet  should  be  chosen  from  the  House  of  Representatives 
would  deal  merely  with  the  executive  and  the  legislative  branch ; 
it  need  say  nothing  about  the  judiciary,  for  that  is  not  concerned 
in  the  question. 

An  argument  may  begin  by  surveying  the  general 
subject  in  order  to  introduce  the  point  at  issue  and  to 
define  it  accurately.  Such  an  introduction,  however, 
should  not  be  too  long. 

Having  found  the  point  at  issue,  we  should  make  it 
clear  that  the  decision  turns  on  that  point.  Then  we 
should  stick  to  the  point  until  we  have  explained  our 
views  and  set  forth  our  reasons  for  holding  them.  We 
must  not  be  led  off  into  irrelevant  matters  or  ‘‘  side- 
issues.” 

Sometimes  the  determination  of  the  point  at  issue  is 
the  gist  of  the  whole  argument ; for,  when  this  is  prop- 
erly defined  and  illustrated,  you  may  be  able  to  show 
that  most  of  the  considerations  urged  by  the  other  side 
are  not  pertinent.  In  many  cases,  too,  when  you  have 
freed  this  main  point  from  all  obscurities  and  irrelevant 
side-issues  it  becomes  evident  that  only  one  decision  is 


254 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


possible.  At  any  rate,  there  can  be  no  profitable  discus- 
sion till  the  point  at  issue  is  cleared  up  and  recognized 
as  such  by  both  parties. 

Confusion  or  lack  of  agreement  on  the  point  at  issue  is 
extremely  common  among  untrained  reasoners.  We  have  all 
heard  men  wrangle  endlessly  over  a question  when  it  was  clear  to 
any  unprejudiced  listener  that  they  were  really  talking  about 
different  things.  Ignorance  of  the  point  ’’  makes  all  argument 
futile. 

The  principles  of  arrangement  that  we  have  learned  in 
our  study  of  explanation  apply  equally  well  to  the  struc- 
ture of  an  argument.  Every  division  of  the  subject 
should  be  clearly  marked,  and  transition  should  receive 
particular  attention.  The  conclusion  should  usually  be  a 
rapid  summing-up  of  the  points  that  have  been  made. 
It  is  particularly  important  to  leave  these  firmly  fixed 
in  the  hearer’s  mind. 

SECTION  191. 

REFUTATION. 

An  argument  should  not  neglect  the  points  made,  or 
likely  to  be  made,  by  the  other  side.  It  should  contro- 
vert them,  discredit  them,  or  show  that  they  are  irrele- 
vant. The  part  of  the  argument  in  which  this  is  done 
is  called  the  refutation. 

In  an  argument  of  fact,  the  refutation  may  show  the  impossi- 
bility of  some  fact  which  is  iniportant  to  the  other  side.  Thus 
Lincoln  once  disproved  the  testimony  of  a witness  that  he  saw  a 
certain  murder  committed  by  moonlight,  by  sending  for  an 
almanac  and  pointing  out  that  there  was  no  moon  at  that  time. 


DEBATES. 


255 


In  an  argument  of  theory,  the  refutation  may  adduce  facts  that 
cannot  be  explained  by  the  opposing  theory ; or  it  may  expose 
fallacies  in  the  reasoning. 

In  an  argument  of  policy,  the  refutation  may  designate  partic- 
ular evils  or  disadvantages  that  would  result  from  the  policy  of 
the  other  side ; or  it  may  contend  that  the  policy  is  inconsistent 
with  other  well-established  principles,  that  it  overlooks  important 
interests,  or  that  it  contravenes  established  rights. 

The  refutation  should  always  be  adapted  to  both 
the  actual  and  the  possible  arguments  of  the  other  side. 
Where  it  shall  come  in,  and  how,  must  be  decided  in  each 
case  by  tact  and  shrewdness.  Sometimes  it  is  formally 
introduced ; at  other  times  it  is  brought  in  casually,  as 
if  it  were  of  slight  consequence.  If  we  are  to  be 
followed  by  our  opponent,  it  becomes  necessary  to  guess 
at  his  arguments,  and,  under  these  circumstances,  we 
must  be  careful  not  to  “give  him  points.”  If  our  oppo- 
nent precedes,  we  must  not  pass  over  any  of  his  points 
without  attention. 


SECTION  192. 

DEBATES. 

The  most  profitable  subjects  for  debate  are  questions  of 
policy.  Questions  of  fact  commonly  need  the  evidence 
of  witnesses ; questions  of  theory  or  principle  are  likely 
to  be  too  abstruse  for  most  audiences ; and  neither  of 
these  classes  of  argument  affords  an  opportunity  for 
persuasiveness. 

Questions  of  policy,  on  the  other  hand,  include  innumer- 
able questions  which  are  intelligible  and  interesting  to  a 


266 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


great  variety  of  persons ; and  they  call  into  play  both 
the  reasoning  powers  of  the  debaters  and  their  persua- 
sive skill. 

In  preparing  for  a debate,  the  first  thing  is  to  make 
sure  that  you  have  a debatable  question. 

To  be  profitably  debatable  a question  must  be  one  on 
which  reasonable  men  may  differ. 

It  would  be  absurd  to  debate  the  question  whether  treason  is 
wicked  or  not ; for  no  sensible  man  would  take  the  negative.  On 
the  other  hand,  whether  correspondence  with  rebels  in  a specific 
case  is  treason  or  not  may  be  a highly  debatable  question,  to  be 
settled  both  on  grounds  of  public  expediency  and  of  law.  Again, 
granted  the  definition  of  treason,  it  was  a question  of  fact,  to  be 
determined  by  evidence  and  argument,  whether  Aaron  Burr  was 
guilty  of  certain  specific  acts  that  were  admittedly  treasonable. 

Further,  questions  which  turn  on  personal  taste  are 
not  to  be  debated  with  any  profit. 

Such  are  most  questions  of  preference  between  books  and 
authors,  comparisons  between  different  races  or  nations,  between 
different  games,  and  so  on.  Indeed,  many  of  the  questions  on 
which  we  argue  amicably  with  our  friends  furnish  poor  material 
for  a formal  debate. 

When  you  have  found  a debatable  question,  state  it 
carefully,  so  that  the  issue  between  the  affirmative  and  the 
negative  is  clear.  A debate  in  which  one  side  does  not 
face  the  other  squarely  is  a waste  of  time. 

‘‘  The  United  States  should  withdraw  from  the  Philippines  ’’  is 
a vague  proposition,  on  which  the  negative  and  the  affirmative  may 
never  meet ; for  the  affirmative  may  take  it  to  mean  a withdrawal 
in  the  distant  future,  and  the  negative  an  immediate  withdrawal. 


DEBATES. 


257 


Thus  the  two  sides  would  be  arguing  different  questions.  On 
the  other  hand,  The  United  States  should  withdraw  from  the 
Philippines  at  once,”  or  “ as  soon  as  peace  is  established,”  would 
be  an  excellent  subject  for  debate. 

The  proposition,  then,  must  be  so  definitely  stated 
that  both  sides  may  confront  each  other  squarely  on  the 
same  issue,  understood  in  the  same  way.  In  many  cases, 
the  mere  statement  of  the  issue  calls  for  much  thought 
and  a thorough  understanding  of  the  subject. 

In  the  debate  itself  you  must  not  be  satisfied  with 
stating  the  arguments  on  your  own  side.  You  must 
be  quick  to  grasp  the  arguments  of  your  opponents 
and  to  meet  them  in  the  rebuttal.  This  refutation  will 
test  your  knowledge  of  the  subject  and  your  ready 
command  of  your  knowledge. 

In  an  argument  on  the  retention  of  the  Philippines,  if  the 
affirmative  were  to  urge  the  richness  of  the  island  and  the  oppor- 
tunities for  profitable  commerce,  the  negative  might  take  the 
ground  that  the  affirmative  had  not  produced  figures  to  prove 
the  richness,  and  that  the  people  of  a tropical  climate  have  few 
wants  for  commerce  to  supply. 

Readiness  to  meet  your  opponent  on  his  own  ground 
not  only  shows  skill  in  the  art  of  debate,  but  is  in  itself 
evidence  of  the  strength  of  your  own  case. 

We  should  take  heed,  however,  not  to  dwell  too" 
seriously  on  the  arguments  of  the  other  side.  In  this 
way  an  unskilful  disputant  may  even  succeed  in  arguing 
against  himself.  If  we  venture  to  make  light  of  adverse 
arguments,  we  must  do  so  with  delicacy,  and  avoid  even 
the  appearance  of  browbeating  or  unfairness. 


258 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  193. 

BRIEFS  FOR  ARGUMENTS. 

I. 

Proposition.  — The  streets  of  this  city  should  be  kept  clean. 
[Argument  addressed  to  the  city  government.] 

1.  Travellers  coming  to  the  city  are  unfavorably  impressed  by 
a.  Rough  and  unpaved  thoroughfares. 

h.  Mudholes  in  spring  and  autumn  * 

c.  Filth  and  rubbish  accumulating  in  the  gutters. 

(In  each  case  cite  specific  instances,  naming  the  street.) 

2.  Business  is  hindered  and  obstructed.  For  — 
a.  The  delivery  of  goods  is  slow  and  uncertain. 

h.  Merchants  are  obliged  to  keep  more  horses,  and  pay  for 
extra  repairs  on  harnesses  and  wagons.  (Cite  cases.) 

3.  Such  streets  keep  business  away.  For  — 

a.  They  make  the  citizens  seem  shiftless  and  unprogressive. 
h.  They  increase  the  cost  of  hauling  freight  to^  and  from 
the  factories. 

II. 

Proposition.  — This  school  should  observe  Arbor  Bay. 
[Argument  addressed  to  the  pupils  of  the  school.] 

1.  Trees  conduce  to  the  health  of  a town. 

a.  They  protect  passers-by  from  the  excessive  heat  of  the 
summer  sun. 

h.  They  tend  to  keep  down  the  dust  — 

(a)  By  keeping  the  sun  from  baking  the  street. 

(h)  By  tempering  and  breaking  the  wind. 
c.  Shady  streets  tempt  people  to  walking  and  other  moder- 
ate exercise. 

2.  Trees  add  to  the  beauty  of  a town.  (Cite  specific  examples.) 

3.  There  are  places  near  the  school  which  are  bare  and  unat- 

tractive, for  want  of  trees.  (Cite  specific  cases,  and 
compare  with  those  cited  in  No.  2.) 


BRIEFS  FOR  ARGUMENTS. 


259 


III. 

Proposition.  — A single  long  session  of  school  is  better  for 
the  scholars  than  morning  and  afternoon  sessions. 

Affirmative. 

1.  A student  can  accomplish  more  if  his  time  of  application  is 

not  broken.  For  — 

a.  It  is  easier  to  keep  his  attention  undistracted  by  outside 
affairs. 

h.  There  is  less  waste  of  time  in  getting  settled  down  to 
work  and  in  breaking  up. 

2.  A healthy  boy  or  girl  is  perfectly  capable  of  studying  for 

five  hours. 

a.  The  strain  is  broken  — 

(a)  By  the  change  of  subject  from  period  to  period. 

(h)  By  recess. 

(c)  By  drill  or  gymnastic  exercises. 
h.  Many  boys  and  girls  work  all  day  in  shops  and  factories. 

3.  The  single  long  session  leaves  the  afternoon  free,  either  — 
a.  For  some  special  piece  of  outside  work  like  a composi- 
tion ; or  — 

h.  For  exercise  and  out-of-door  games. 

Negative. 

1.  The  single  session  is  too  long  for  growing  boys  and  girls  to 

be  confined.  For  — 

They  need  more  frequent  chances  to  stretch  their  muscles, 
and  to  get  into  the  open  air. 

2.  Study  in  two  shorter  sessions  would  be  more  effective.  For 
a.  The  pupils’  minds  would  be  fresher. 

h.  Work  can  go  on  at  higher  pressure  for  the  shorter 
time. 

3.  Therefore,  less  study  out  of  school  would  be  necessary. 

4.  The  time  after  school  is  long  enough  for  games.  For  — 

It  need  not  be  broken  into  by  home  study. 

5.  Most  people  after  they  leave  school  must  work  all  day. 


260 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


IV. 

Proposition.  — A new  playground  is  needed  near  this  school. 
[Argument  addressed  to  the  city  government.] 

1.  The  pupils  have  now  no  adequate  place  for  exercise. 
(Describe  the  neighborhood  of  the  school.) 

2.  In  consequence  they  must  play,  if  at  all,  in  the  streets. 

a.  Playing  in  the  streets  is  inconvenient  to  — 

(a)  The  neighbors. 

(b)  The  passers-by. 

b.  It  is  injurious  to  children,  since  — 

(a)  It  gives  them  no  proper  chance  for  games. 

(b)  It  tends  to  bring  them  into  mischief  and  make  them 

careless  of  other  people’s  convenience. 

3.  Games  are  necessary  for  one  who  is  still  growing.  For  — 

a.  They  develop  the  muscles. 

b.  They  make  the  body  healthy. 

c.  They  teach  self-reliance  and  mutual  forbearance. 

4.  Playgrounds  make  for  the  public  interest.  For  — 

a.  They  make  the  population  healthy. 

b.  They  decrease  petty  mischief. 

c.  They  prevent  crime  by  providing  growing  boys  and  girls 

with  healthy  amusement,  and  keeping  them  away  from 
dangerous  resorts. 


To  THE  Teacher.  — For  students  who  use  this  hook,  any  elaborate 
study  of  argument  would  be  too  advanced.  They  may  find  profitable 
exercise,  however,  in  stating  the  pros  and  cons  on  a given  question  in  the 
class,  and  then  in  writing  arguments  on  one  side  or  the  other.  Such  prac- 
tice in  making  a clear  statement  of  their  views  is  excellent  training  in 
thought  and  composition. 

If  it  is  desirable  to  have  simple  debates,  the  pupils  should  he  trained 
first  to  select  the  real  point  at  issue,  and  to  state  it  clearly  and  without 
a shadow  of  ambiguity.  Then  they  should  prepare  for  the  actual  debate 
by  making  simple  briefs  in  which  their  arguments  and  evidence  are  lucidly 
arranged.  In  the  debate  itself,  they  should  he  encouraged  to  speak  with- 
out too  great  dependence  on  notes,  and  to  respond  readily  to  the  points 
made  by  the  other  side. 


Part  III. 

• PARAGRAPHS,  SENTENCES,  .WORDS. 


261 


Part  III. 

PARAGRAPHS,  SENTENCES,  WORDS. 


SECTION  194. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

In  Part  II  we  have  studied  the  principles  of  narra- 
tion, description,  explanation,  and  argument.  Our  study, 
however,  has  dealt  chiefly  with  the  general  structure  of 
the  essay  or  other  piece  of  writing.  We  must  now 
turn  our  attention  to  matters  of  detail  and  consider  the 
rhetorical  elements  of  which  every  composition  is  made 
up,  — paragraphs,  sentences,  and  words. ^ 

The  principles  discussed  in  Part  III  bear  equally  on 
all  the  forms  of  discourse,  but  their  precise  application 
depends  on  the  nature  of  the  subject  and  the  manner 
in  which  it  is  treated. 

SECTION  195. 

PARAGRAPHS. 

Division  into  paragraphs,  as  we  have  seen,  is  necessary 
in  every  kind  of  composition.^  If  you  construct  your 
paragraphs  carefully,  you  make  your  writing  clearer 
and  easier  to  read ; if  you  do  not,  you  give  the  reader 

1 Many  of  the  subjects  discussed  in  Part  III  have  been  already  treated, 
in  an  elementary  way,  in  Part  I.  For  the  relation  of  these  two  Parts,  see 
the  Introduction.  2 g0e  pp.  62  ff. 

263 


264 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


unnecessary  trouble  and  obscure  your  meaning  as  well. 
The  more  complicated  the  subject  is,  the  more  help  you 
can  give  the  reader  by  skilful  paragraphing. 

In  stories  and  descriptions,  the  paragraphs  mark  the 
natural  steps  of  your  composition ; in  explanations,  they 
indicate  the  successive  parts  into  which  you  must 
divide  your  subject  in  order  to  explain  it.^ 


SECTION  196. 

UNITY  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

We  have  learned  that  paragraphs  should  have  unity 
The  reason  is,  that  without  unity  you  can  give  no  clear 
and  connected  account  of  your  subject.  If  you  are 
writing  a story,  you  must  set  forth  the  events  in  natural 
and  orderly  succession.  If  you  are  explaining  a sub- 
ject, you  must  have  a proper  place  in  which  to  put  each 
fact,  and  must  put  it  there  and  nowhere  else. 

Read  Macaulay's  ‘‘Siege  of  Arcot " (pp.  350-54).  The  first 
paragraph  describes  the  circumstances  leading  up  to  Clive's  seizure 
of  Arcot ; the  second  tells  the  swift  preparations  for  the  siege  ; the 
third  enumerates  the  forces  of  the  besiegers ; the  fourth  tells  of 
the  weakness  of  the  place  besieged ; the  fifth,  of  the  hardships  of 
the  garrison  and  their  faithfulness,  — and  so  on  to  the  end. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  explanation  could  not  have 
been  so  clear,  and  the  natural  progress  of  the  story  so 
distinct,  if  unity  had  not  been  carefully  observed  in  the 
construction  of  the  paragraphs. 


1 See  pp.  216  ff. 


2 See  pp.  63,  69. 


UNITY  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH. 


265 


SECTION  197. 

MEANS  OF  SECURING  UNITY. 

The  best  way  to  ensure  unity  in  your  paragraphs  is 
to  decide  beforehand  what  you  will  put  into  each.  If  the 
subject  with  which  you  are  dealing  is  simple  and  the  para- 
graph is  to  be  pretty  short,  jot  down  on  paper  a word 
or  a phrase  to  fix  the  point  in  mind.  Such  a word  or 
phrase  makes  a natural  title  for  the  paragraph. 

When,  however,  your  paragraphs  become  longer,  — 
either  because  the  subject  is  more  complicated,  or 
because  you  are  writing  on  a larger  scale,  — it  is  not  so 
easy  to  be  sure  of  their  unity. 

In  an  explanation  of  baseball,  for  example,  if  you  brought 
together  into  one  paragraph  the  various  topics  which  concern  the 
pitcher,  you  would  have  to  include  some  which  concern  the  batter 
quite  as  much,  — such  as  fair  ball,  base  on  balls,  down  curve,  and 
the  like.  How  can  you  decide  in  which  paragraph  these  topics 
belong  ? The  simplest  way  is  to  sum  up  the  substance  of  what 
you  have  to  say  about  the  pitcher  in  such  a sentence  as,  The 
pitcher  should  throw  the  ball  over  the  home  plate  at  the  proper 
height  and  so  as  to  elude  the  batter.’' 

If  you  keep  such  a ‘‘  topic-sentence  ” before  you  as 
you  construct  the  paragraph,  you  can  readily  decide 
whether  a given  topic  should  be  included  or  omitted. 
That  this  is  a practical  device  you  may  easily  prove 
by  applying  it  to  any  good  piece  of  explanation. 

In  Grey’s  ‘‘Kangaroo  Hunt”  (pp.  201-2),  the  successive  para- 
graphs may  be  summed  up  in  the  following  sentences : — (1)  In 
the  search  for  kangaroo  the  native  keeps  every  nerve  on  the  alert. 
(2)  The  kangaroo  is  easily  alarmed.  (3)  The  native  shows  great 
skill  in  stalking  the  kangaroo. 


266 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


In  every  well-written  explanation,  and  in  many  narra- 
tives and  descriptions,  you  can  make  such  a summary 
of  each  paragraph  in  a single  sentence. 

Moreover,  when  you  put  these  sentences  together, 
you  will  generally  find  that  you  have  a good  summary 
of  the  whole  composition.  Thus  the  authors  have 
illustrated  the  old  fable  of  ‘‘breaking  the  bundle  of 
sticks  ” : by  taking  up  each  part  of  their  subject  sepa- 
rately, they  have  made  the  whole  easy  to  comprehend. 

It  is  often  wise  to  make  such  sentences  before  you 
begin,  and  then  to  use  them  as  a test  of  unity  after  you 
have  written  your  paragraphs. 

It  would  be  pedantic  to  insist  that  every  paragraph  should  be  summa- 
rized in  a sentence ; in  many  cases  a single  word  will  show  the  unity  better. 
In  general,  the  paragraphs  of  an  explanation  admit  more  readily  of  being 
summarized  in  a sentence  than  the  paragraphs  of  narration  or  pure 
(“literary”)  description.  Thus  in  an  explanation  the  topic-sentences 
will  often  correspond  exactly  to  the  divisions  of  the  plan  or  outline  (see 
pp.  216-17). 


SECTION  198. 

MEANS  OF  INDICATING  UNITY. 

In  practice  the  unity  of  the  paragraph  must  somehow 
be  brought  home  to  the  reader.  A simple  and  effectual 
way  to  accomplish  this  is  to  make  the  first  sentence  indi- 
cate the  subject  of  the  paragraph.  This  is  especially  true 
in  explanations  and  in  narratives  which  have  an  explana- 
tory purpose.^ 

Turn  again  to  the  “ Siege  of  Arcot.”  The  sentences 
at  the  beginning  of  the  first  five  paragraphs  are  as 
follows : — 


1 See  pp.  123,  216-17. 


CLOSE  OF  THE  rARAGRAPIT. 


267 


1.  Clive  was  now  twenty-five  years  old. 

2.  But  Clive  well  knew  that  he  should  not  be  sufiered  to  retain 
undisturbed  possession  of  his  conquest. 

3.  The  intelligence  of  these  events  was  soon  carried  to  Chunda 
Sahib,  who,  with  his  French  allies,  was  besieging  Trichinopoly. 

4.  Rajah  Sahib  proceeded  to  invest  the  fort  of  Arcot,  which 
seemed  quite  incapable  of  sustaining  a siege. 

5.  During  fifty  days  the  siege  went  on. 

From  these  five  sentences  you  get  a tolerable  idea 
of  what  Macaulay  was  writing  about,  as  you  will  easily 
see  by  comparing  them  with  the  statement  of  the  sub- 
stance of  the  paragraphs  (p.  264),  or  with  the  sentences 
which  you  made  in  summarizing  them.  He  has  care- 
fully set  up  sign-posts  to  announce  the  subject  of  each 
paragraph  as  he  came  to  it. 

SECTION  199. 

CLOSE  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

We  have  seen  that  a paragraph  may  begin  with  a 
sentence  which  states,  in  compact  form,  the  subject  of 
which  the  paragraph  is  to  treat. 

For  the  same  reason,  it  is  often  wise  to  sum  up  the 
point  or  essence  of  a paragraph  in  the  closing  sentence. 

In  ‘‘The^Siege  of  Arcot’’  (pp.  350-54),  the  last  sentence  of  the 
first  paragraph  states  the  first  result  of  Clive’s  swift  action ; the 
last  sentence  of  the  second  sums  up  his  defensive  sortie ; the  last 
sentence  of  the  third  gives  the  numbers  and  the  commander  of  the 
besieging  force.  In  each  case,  the  essence  of  the  paragraph  is  left 
in  your  mind  by  virtue  of  this  clear  and  compact  statement. 


268 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


When  a paragraph  runs  to  any  length,  it  is  almost 
always  worth  while  thus  to  restate  its  chief  point  in 
the  last  sentence.  This  gathering  together  and  review 
of  the  substance  of  the  paragraph  serves  to  clinch  your 
reader’s  understanding  of  what  precedes. 

If  you  follow  the  suggestion  on  page  266,  and  write  a 
sentence  to  test  the  unity  of  each  paragraph,  such  a 
sentence  will  often  serve  either  to  open  or  to  close 
the  paragraph  in  a manner  that  will  emphasize  this 
unity. 


SECTION  200. 

TRANSITION. 

Regard  for  unity  will  do  much  to  make  your  com- 
positions easy  and  pleasant  to  read.  But  unity  alone 
will  not  suffice.  The  different  portions  of  your  essay  — 
the  several  paragraphs  and  sentences  — may  observe 
this  principle,  and  still  be  so  distinct  from  each  other 
that  the  whole  will  seem  choppy  and  disjointed.  To 
avoid  this  fault,  it  is  necessary,  as  we  have  already 
seen  (pp.  71-72),  to  be  careful  about  the  transition  from 
sentence  to  sentence  and  from  paragraph  to  paragraph. 

The  transition  from  paragraph  to  paragraph  should  be  so 
smooth  that  your  reader  will  feel  no  break  in  the  thought,* 
but  merely  a natural  and  easy  step  forward.  This 
result  may  be  accomplished  in  various  ways. 

A simple  and  useful  device  is  to  refer  by  means 
of  a pronoun  or  demonstrative  word  at  the  beginning 
of  a paragraph  to  something  in  the  paragraph  which 
immediately  precedes. 


TRANSITION. 


209 


Turn  again  to  ^Macaulay's  Siege  of  Arcot  ” (pp.  350-54). 
In  the  first  sentence  of  the  second  paragraph  you  find  “ his  con- 
quest ” ; in  the  third  paragraph,  ‘‘  these  events  ” ; in  the  fourth 
paragraph  the  first  words  “ Rajah  Sahib  ” are  repeated  from  tlie 
end  of  the  third  paragraph.  In  the  next  paragraph  you  find 
“ the  siege  ” ; in  the  next,  ‘‘  the  place  ; in  the  sixth,  ‘‘  the  fort  ” ; 
in  the  seventh,  the  design”;  in  the  last,  ‘‘Me  struggle.”  In 
each  case,  the  reference  back  to  what  has  been  mentioned  before 
picks  up  the  thread,  and  guides  your  thought  forward  without  a 
break. 

Transition  is  often  accomplished  by  means  of  a word 
like  moreover^  notwithstanding^  hoivever^  or  nevertheless  ; 
or  a phrase  like  in  addition  to^  or,  on  the  other  hand,  in 
spite  of^  or  the  like. 

Such  words  or  phrases  give  you  notice,  as  it  were, 
how  the  new  paragraph  bears  on  the  preceding  one ; that 
it  carries  on  the  thought  in  the  same  direction,  and 
adds  to  its  force  ; or  that  it  modifies  it,  or  perhaps 
counteracts  its  effect  or  refutes  it.  The  variety  of  such 
words  and  phrases  is  very  great ; but  they  all  serve  the 
same  purpose,  — to  carry  you  smoothly  and  easily  from 
one  paragraph  to  another. 

When  you  are  writing  a story  or  a description  the  transitions 
commonly  take  care  of  themselves,  for  you  naturally  mention 
simple  relations  of  time,  place,  or  consequence,  as  you  pass  from 
one  step  to  another.  In  explanation  or  argument,  however,  you 
must  often  begin  by  breaking  up  the  subject  into  groups  in  which 
like  topics  fall  together  without  regard  to  their  original  time  or 
place  (pp.  211-13).  If,  now,  you  leave  these  groups  without  unmis- 
takable signs  of  the  relations  between  them,  the  reader  must  puzzle 
out  the  connection  for  himself.  Since  the  whole  purpose  of  an 
explanation  or  an  argument  is  to  make  these  relations  evident, 
transition  becomes  of  very  great  importance. 


270 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  201. 

TRANSITION  IN  SENTENCES. 

The  transition  from  sentence  to  sentence  within  the  para= 
graph  should  be  as  smooth  as  that  from  paragraph  to 
paragraph.  In  general,  it  is  accomplished  in  much  the 
same  way. 

Observe  how  easily  you  follow  the  narrative  in 
“The  Siege  of  Arcot”  (pp.  350-54).  The  reason  is 
that  Macaulay  takes  pains  to  carry  his  reader  along 
from  sentence  to  sentence  by  always  making  clear  how 
the  successive  facts  are  related  to  each  other. 

In  the  first  place,  he  makes  free  use  of  conjunctions 
and  connective  phrases. 

The  fifth  paragraph  (p.  352)  contains  three  examples, — however, 
under  such  circumstances,  and  hut.  The  conjunction  however  in 
the  third  sentence  shows  that  the  facts  which  follow  are  opposed 
in  thought  to  what  has  preceded.  The  phrase  under  such  circum- 
stances shows,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  facts  in  this  sentence 
must  be  understood  in  the  light  of  what  comes  before.  The  hut, 
a little  below,  gives  notice  that  the  thought  is  changing  again. 

Read  the  paragraph  aloud,  leaving  out  these  five 
words  only,  and  you  will  see  how  much  they  assist  the 
reader.  By  their  use  Macaulay  made  it  possible  to  pass 
swiftly,  and  without  effort,  from  one  fact  to  another  in 
the  successive  sentences. 

Another  way  to  smooth  your  reader’s  passage  from 
sentence  to  sentence  is  to  use  pronouns  and  demonstra- 
tives frequently. 

In  the  third  paragraph  of  “The  Siege  of  Arcot” 
(p.  351),  every  sentence  after  the  first  has  a pronoun 


TRANSITION  IN  SENTENCES. 


271 


or  a demonstrative  either  at  or  near  the  beginning. 
Now  read  the  passage  in  the  following  form  : — 

The  intelligence  of  these  events  was  soon  carried  to  Chunda 
Sahib,  who,  with  his  French  allies,  was  besieging  Trichinopoly. 
Four  thousand  men,  detached  from  his  camp,  immediately  started 
for  Arcot.  The  remains  of  the  force  lately  scattered  by  Clive 
joined  these  four  thousand.  The  force  was  strengthened  by  two 
thousand  men  from  Yellore,  and  Dupleix  despatched  a still  more 
important  reinforcement  of  a hundred  and  fifty  French  soldiers 
from  Pondicherry.  Rajah  Sahib,  son  of  Chunda  Sahib,  com- 
manded the  whole  army,  amounting  to  about  ten  thousand  men. 

In  this  form  the  passage  is  much  harder  to  read  and 
the  sense  is  not  so  readily  grasped.  You  miss  the  con- 
stant succession  of  Tie  and  they  and  this^  which  show 
you,  as  you  come  to  each  fresh  sentence,  that  the  new 
thought  concerns  the  person  or  persons  or  things  men- 
tioned in  the  sentence  preceding.  Such  words,  then,  are 
like  the  transitional  conjunctions  which  we  have  just 
studied  (p.  270);  for  they  also  serve  as  guide-posts  to 
direct  your  thought  as  it  tries  to  follow  the  author’s 
meaning. 

Study  the  following  paragraph  from  Hawthorne’s 
“ Golden  Touch.”  You  will  notice  that  each  sentence 
is  connected  with  what  has  gone  before  in  one  or  another 
of  the  ways  which  we  have  been  studying. 

Whether  Midas  slept  as  usual  that  night,  the  story  does  not 
say.  Asleep  or  awake,  however^  Ms  mind  was  probably  in  the  state 
of  a child’s,  to  whom  a beautiful  new  plaything  has  been  promised 
in  the  morning.  At  any  rate,  day  had  hardly  peeped  over  the 
hills,  when  King  Midas  was  broad  awake,  and,  stretching  his  arms 
out  of  bed,  began  to  touch  the  objects  that  were  within  reach. 


272 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


He  was  anxious  to  prove  whether  the  Golden  Touch  had  really 
come,  according  to  the  stranger’s  promise.  So  he  laid  his  finger 
on  a chair  by  the  bedside,  and  on  various  other  things,  but  was 
grievously  disappointed  to  perceive  that  they  remained  of  exactly 
the  same  substance  as  before.  Indeed,  he  felt  very  much  afraid 
that  he  had  only  dreamed  about  the  lustrous  stranger,  or  else  that 
the  latter  had  been  making  game  of  him.  Aiid  what  a miserable 
affair  would  it  be,  if,  after  all  his  hopes,  Midas  must  content  him- 
self with  what  little  gold  he  could  scrape  together  by  ordinary 
means,  instead  of  creating  it  by  a touch ! 

The  words  in  italics  bind  the  sentences  together  so 
closely  that  you  feel  ]io  sudden  breaks  as  you  read, 
and  grasp  the  relations  between  the  successive  facts 
without  effort. 


SECTION  202. 

COHERENCE. 

If  you  are  careful  about  ease  and  smoothness  of 
transition  between  sentences,  you  ensure  another  result, 
which,  as  we  have  seen,  is  especially  important  in 
explanations.  You  weld  the  substance  of  each  paragraph 
together  so  closely  that  the  reader  can  grasp  it  all  as  a 
single  thought.  Thus  you  are  able  to  deal  with  larger 
and  more  comprehensive  ideas,  and  therefore  to  explain 
more  complicated  subjects. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  you  jerk  your  reader’s  mind  from 
the  substance  of  one  sentence  to  that  of  another,  without 
indicating  the  connection,  your  essay  will  leave  the 
impression  of  a crude  mass  of  unrelated  facts.  Even 
if  each  paragraph  has  unity,  the  reader  will  hardly 
realize  the  fact  unless  there  are  easy  transitions  as  well. 


EXERCISES  IN  PARAGRAPHS. 


273 


SECTION  203. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARAGRAPHS. 

1.  Write  four  paragraphs  on  Rain  in  Summer from  the 
outline  in  Exercise  8,  p.  178. 

2.  Study  the  sequence  of  paragraphs  in  “ The  Smudge  ” 
(pp.  199-200).  Write  an  outline  of  the  explanation,  indicating 
the  substance  of  each  paragraph.  Observe  the  means  by  which 
transition  is  effected  and  coherence  secured. 

3.  Turn  back  to  the  outlines  which  you  prepared  in  studying 
Section  177.  Use  one  of  them  as  the  basis  of  a composition, 
constructing  your  paragraphs  in  accordance  with  the  outline. 

4.  Write  two  paragraphs  upon  the  subject  What  I should 
like  to  do  to-morrow,  and  why.”  Prepare  a topic  sentence  for 
each  paragraph. 

5.  Turn  to  the  explanation  of  the  street-car  transfer,  as  written 
in  your  note-book  (p.  235).  Criticise  the  construction  of  your 
paragraphs.  Rewrite  the  explanation,  in  the  light  of  your  recent 
study  of  paragraphs. 

6.  Write  two  paragraphs,  the  first  asking  a question,  and  the 
second  replying  to  the  question. 

7.  Write  a paragraph  in  which  the  main  thought  is  expressed 
in  the  first  sentence,  and  explained  by  the  sentences  which 
follow. 

8.  Write  a paragraph  in  which  the  topic  sentence  is  used  at 
the  end  of  the  paragraph. 

9.  Prepare  two  paragraphs,  contrasting  the  characters  of  two 
persons  of  whom  you  have  read.  To  indicate  the  contrast  use 
“ on  the  contrary  ” in  the  introductory  sentence  of  the  second 
paragraph. 

10.  Prepare  two  paragraphs,  the  second  explaining  the  effect 
of  the  action  or  event  which  the  first  describes. 

11.  Bring  to  the  class  three  paragraphs  that  are  so  begun  or  so 
ended  as  to  make  clear  their  unity. 


274 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


12.  Study  the  transitions  from  paragraph  to  paragraph  in 
Mrs.  Carlyle’s  Housekeeping  ” (pp.  348-50)  ; in  Scott’s  ‘‘  Battle 
of  Bannockburn”  (pp.  11-16);  in  Hawthorne’s  Tangle  wood 
Porch  ” (pp.  346-8).  Point  out  the  transitional  words  or  phrases. 

13.  From  hooks  that  you  have  read  or  studied  wdthin  two 
days,  make  a list  of  words  or  phrases  that  assist  in  transition. 

14.  Write  a topic  sentence  for  each  paragraph  in  ‘‘  The  Siege 
of  Arcot”  (pp.  350-54)  and  ‘‘Housekeeping”  (pp.  348-50). 

15.  Bring  to  the  class  a passage  from  your  History  (or  some 
other  book)  in  which  the  paragraphs  observe  the  principle  of 
unity.  Sum  up  each  paragraph  in  a sentence. 

16.  Make  a list  of  conjunctions,  conjunctive  adverbs,  and  con- 
nective phrases  from  your  reading.  Bring  to  the  class  examples 
of  sentences  and  paragraphs  which  illustrate  the  use  of  such 
words  and  phrases. 

17.  Bring  to  the  class  two  examples  of  paragraphs  in  which  it 
would  be  dilRcult  to  follow  the  thought  if  the  conjunctions,  con- 
junctive adverbs,  and  connective  phrases  were  omitted. 

18.  Find  examples  of  paragraphs  in  which  pronouns  and 
demonstratives  show  the  transition  from  sentence  to  sentence. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — It  should  he  remembered  in  the  discussion  of 
paragraphing  that  usage  is  much  less  settled  than  in  the  case  of  words  and 
sentences.  The  choice  among  different  forms  and  lengths  of  paragraphs 
almost  always  rests  on  expediency.  Pupils  should  therefore  he  taught  to 
rely  on  their  own  judgment  and  should  he  trained,  by  frequent  exercises, 
to  a clearness  of  thought  which  will  enable  them  to  judge  wisely.  They 
should  be  made  to  see  that  the  doctrines  suggested  in  Sections  195-202  are 
valid  only  in  so  far  as  they  are  of  practical  service  in  the  expression  of 
ideas.  In  general,  paragraphs  are  more  formally  constructed  in  explana- 
tory writing  than  in  other  kinds  of  composition. 

It  is  a common  fault  of  unpractised  writers  to  make  their  paragraphs 
too  short.  Sometimes,  indeed,  this  error  goes  so  far  that  each  sentence 
stands  in  a paragraph  by  itself.  It  is  therefore  a good  working  rule  to 
require  the  pupil  to  defend  any  of  his  paragraphs  that  contain  less  than 
three  sentences,  except  in  “written  conversations.”  But  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  apply  the  rule  too  strictly.  In  all  such  matters  the  only  safe 
guides  are  common  sense  and  a discreet  regard  to  the  circumstances  and 
to  the  needs  of  the  class  or  the  individual. 


SENTENCES. 


275 


SECTION  204. 

THE  STRUCTUEE  OF  SENTENCES. 

The  guiding  principle  of  sentence  structure  is  simple  : 
a sentence  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  assist  the  reader  in 
grasping  and  following  the  thought.  This  principle  involves 
not  only  grammatical  correctness,  but  also  clearness, 
unity,  and  variety,  which  we  have  already  studied.  It 
likewise  involves  a due  regard  to  smooth  and  agreeable 
writing  and  to  the  proper  distribution  of  emphasis. 
Carelessness  in  any  of  these  particulars  thwarts  and 
annoys  the  reader  and  may  utterly  defeat  the  writer’s 
purpose. 

The  principle  in  question  applies  to  every  kind  of 
composition,  from  a familiar  letter  to  a novel,  a drama, 
or  a history. 


SECTION  205. 

WHY  VARIETY  IS  REQUISITE.^ 

We  have  already  found  that  variety  is  needed  in  the 
length  and  structure  of  sentences,  not  only  for  the  sake 
of  smoothness,  but  to  render  our  meaning  clear  and  to 
distribute  the  emphasis  properly.  This  is  true  of  even 
the  simplest  narration,  as  we  learned  by  studying  three 
typical  examples  in  Part  1? 

^ This  section  is  illustrative  rather  than  “practical”  and  should  be  so 
treated  by  the  teacher.  It  connects  what  has  already  been  learned  about 
variety  with  the  more  detailed  study  of  sentence  structure  in  the  following 
sections  (pp.  277-300). 

2 Here  a rapid  review  of  pp.  45-47,  57-58  may  be  needed.  It  should,  if 
possible,  take  the  form  of  a free  class-room  discussion,  led  by  the  teacher. 


276 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


Our  study  of  these  examples  was,  so  to  speak,  from 
the  outside.  Let  us  now  test  the  principle  of  variety 
in  another  Avay,  — by  looking  into  our  own  minds  and 
observing  how  they  work  in  the  everyday  processes  of 
thought.  An  easy  experiment  will  show  that  these 
operations  are  very  complicated.^ 

' Watch  your  own  thoughts  and  you  will  find  that,  while  you 
read  these  coords,  there  are  in  the  background  of  your  mind  other 
ideas  and  feelings.  For  example,  you  see  the  white  page  with 
black  marks  on  it  ; you  feel  the  weight  of  the  book  and  the  tex- 
ture of  the  cover  in  your  hand ; you  know  whether  the  room  is 
warm  or  cold;  you  hear  noises  outside, — a dog  barking,  a hand 
organ,  the  rumble  and  hum  of  an  electric  car,  a footstep  in  the 
hall.  These  things  all  occupy  your  mind  in  some  degree,  along 
with  the  sense  of  what  you  are  reading.  Moreover,  the  very 
words  dog  barking,  or  electric  car,  may  remind  you  of  something 
that  you  did  yesterday  or  intend  to  do  to-morrow.  All  the  time, 
too,  your  thoughts  are  busy,  putting  together  what  you  read,  and 
applying  its  principles  to  the  compositions  that  you  may  have  to 
write. 

As  you  do  different  things,  — study,  write,  play 
games,  walk  or  ride  in  the  country,  — the  contents  of 
your  mind  will  be  different.  Sometimes  they  will  seem 
to  be  nothing  but  thoughts;  sometimes  nothing  but  the 
sensations  of  the  things  about  you;  sometimes  chiefly 
memories  of  things  and  people  in  the  past;  sometimes 
chiefly  the  desire  to  do  something  in  the  future.  Always, 

1 The  purpose  of  this  simple  experiment  in  psychology  is  to  enforce  the 
inevitable  connection  between  the  processes  of  thought  and  the  principles 
of  composition.  The  pupil  should  be  made  to  see  that  variety  in  sentence 
structure  is  not  a mere  trick  of  rhetoric,  but  a natural  development,  grow- 
ing out  of  the  complexity  of  human  thought. 


HOW  SENTENCES  DEVELOP  VARIETY. 


277 


however,  this  ‘‘  stream  of  consciousness,”  as  the  philoso- 
phers call  it,  will  be  in  constant  change  and  motion ; 
and,  though  it  may  sometimes  seem  entirely  simple,  it 
will  in  reality  be  complex,  — made  up,  as  it  were,  of 
different  layers  of  thought  and  sensation.  To  express 
our  thoughts  clearly,  then,  must  require  great  variety 
in  the  means  of  expression. 

Note  down  the  thoughts,  sensations,  memories,  and  other  ideas 
now  passing  in  your  mind,  and  arrange  them,  as  well  as  you  can, 
according  to  their  several  kinds. 


SECTION  206. 

HOW  SENTENCES  DEVELOP  VARIETY. 

To  express  in  words  the  varied  operations  of  your 
mind,  as  you  have  observed  them  in  Section  205,  requires 
a large  vocabulary.  But  that  is  not  all,  as  you  may 
readily  observe  in  the  case  of  a child  Avho  is  learning  to 
talk.  Such  observation’-  will  show  at  once  that  expres- 
sion requires  not  merely  a stock  of  words  but  a consider- 
able variety  of  sentences  as  well. 

A baby  who  is  just  beginning  to  talk  expresses  his  ideas  by 
means  of  single  words,  — papa,  mamma,  how-woic,  hot,  and  the 
like.  A year  later  he  will  make  simple  sentences, — such  as 
Papa  comes  home,”  or  ‘‘  Bow-wow  barks  ” ; for  he  is  now  old 
enough  to  combine  his  simple  sensations  into  new  ideas. 

1 The  teacher  should  point  out  that  this  study  of  the  cliild’s  linguistic 
growth  is  the  best  possible  illustration  of  the  development  of  language  in 
general.  Language  did  not  come  ready-made  to  man.  It  has  gone  through 
various  stages,  rising  from  simple  sounds  to  words,  and  from  words  to 
short  sentences,  and  so  on  to  more  and  more  elaborate  forms  of  expression. 
A little  explanation  of  this  kind  will  enable  the  pupil  to  see  the  bearing  of 
the  observation  that  he  is  here  called  upon  to  make. 


278 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


As  yet,  however,  the  child’s  ideas  are  of  the  simplest  kind, 
and  call  for  only  the  simplest  sentences.  In  two  or  three  years, 
when  he  has  more  objects  to  think  of,  and  begins  to  appreciate 
their  bearings  on  each  other,  he  must  go  farther.  He  will  say, 
perhaps,  “ Papa  comes  home  when  he  gets  through  work,”  or 
‘‘  The  dog  barks  when  he  hears  a noise.”  In  other  words,  he 
cannot  now  express  his  thoughts  without  using  complex  sentences. 

When  he  goes  to  school  and  becomes  able  to  grasp  larger  and 
deeper  ideas,  he  will  need  more  ways  of  expressing  himself.  The 
sentences  that  he  uses,  therefore,  will  be  more  varied,  and,  on  the 
whole,  more  complex  in  their  structure.  If  they  do  not  develop 
in  this  way,  his  means  of  expression  fails  to  keep  pace  with  the 
natural  development  of  his  mind. 

As  he  grows  older  the  variety  of  his  sentences  must  increase, 
and  also,  to  a certain  extent,  their  complexity.  The  whole 
process  is  one  continuous  history,  from  the  earliest  efforts  that  a 
baby  makes  to  utter  single  words  to  the  longest  and  most 
complicated  sentence  ever  constructed. 

The  main  purpose  of  education  is  so  to  train  the 
mind  that  it  may  be  able  to  bring  together  in  thought 
an  ever  increasing  range  of  objects.  But  unless  we 
have  a range  of  expression  corresponding  to  this  larger 
range  of  ideas,  we  shall  be  much  hampered  in  applying 
our  thought  to  any  practical  purpose.  Our  range  of 
expression  depends,  in  great  measure,  on  the  ability  to 
use  a considerable  variety  of  sentences. 

Every  kind  of  sentence,  therefore,  has  a direct  bear- 
ing on  the  art  of  composition  as  practised  by  all  of  us 
in  daily  life.  Unless  you  can  use  the  various  forms  of 
sentence  structure  naturally  and  without  confusion,  you 
will  express  your  thoughts  and  ideas  imperfectly ; and, 
in  consequence,  you  cannot  make  yourself  as  efficient  in 
the  world  as  you  ought  to  be. 


KINDS  OF  SENTENCES. 


279 


SECTION  207.1 

KINDS  OF  SENTENCES. 

Sentences,  as  you  have  learned  in  your  study  of  gram- 
mar, may  be  simple,  compound,  or  complex.  Since  each  of 
these  forms  of  the  sentence  gives  a different  turn  to  the 
thought  expressed,  we  must  now  consider  the  special 
character  and  value  of  each,  and  how  each  may  be  made 
useful  in  writing. 

We  have  seen  in  Part  I that  skill  in  the  construc- 
tion and  arrangement  of  sentences  is  necessary  for 
smoothness  and  emphasis.^  We  now  perceive  that  the 
form  of  the  sentence  helps  to  show  the  relations  between 
the  ideas.  Skill  in  the  construction  of  sentences,  there- 
fore, is  of  direct  aid  in  the  expression  of  our  thought ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  an  inappropriate  form  of  sentence 
may  obscure  the  meaning  as  much  as  a wrong  word.  We 
should  train  ourselves,  therefore,  to  use  different  kinds 
of  sentences  until  they  are  as  thoroughly  at  our  com- 
mand as  our  vocabulary,  so  that  each  thought  will  flow 
naturally  and  automatically  into  the  mould  best  suited 
to  express  it.^ 

To  THE  Teacher.  — If  practice  in  composition  has  accompanied  the 
pupil’s  training  in  grammatical  analysis,  he  will  recognize  the  principles 
expressed  in  this  section  as  already  familiar.  He  should  not,  in  any  case, 
he  allowed  to  suppose  that  he  is  entering  upon  a subject  with  which  he 
has  no  previous  acquaintance. 

1 At  this  point  it  may  be  useful  to  review  briefly  the  general  subject  of 
sentences  in  the  grammar  (see  “ The  Mother  Tongue,”  Book  II,  pp.  131-3, 
294  if.).  The  review  may  profitably  include  practice  in  altering  the 
arrangement  of  sentences,  and  in  turning  one  kind  of  sentence  into 
another  (see  pp.  47-61,  above). 

2 See  pp.  45  ff.,  57  ff. 


3 See  p.  289. 


280 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  208. 

SIMPLE  SENTENCES. 

The  value  of  short,  simple  sentences  in  connected  writ- 
ing consists  chiefly  in  their  power  to  produce  empha- 
sis. We  have  seen  (in  the  exercise  on  pages  45-46) 
that  a style  consisting  of  such  sentences  alone  is  both 
tiresome  and  uncouth.  Variety  is  indispensable  both  to 
the  reader’s  comfort  and  to  his  understanding.  In  this 
variety,  how^ever,  simple  declarative  sentences  have  their 
necessary  part. 

Read  the  following  paragraph  on  ‘‘Liberty”:  — 

Ariosto  tells  a pretty  story  of  a fairy,  who,  by  some  mysterious 
law  of  her  nature,  was  condemned  to  appear  at  certain  seasons  in 
the  form  of  a foul  and  poisonous  snake.  Those  who  injured  her 
during  the  period  of  her  disguise  were  forever  excluded  from  par- 
ticipation in  the  blessings  which  she  bestowed.  But  to  those 
who,  in  spite  of  her  loathsome  aspect,  pitied  and  protected  her, 
she  afterwards  revealed  herself  in  the  beautiful  and  celestial 
form  which  was  natural  to  her,  accompanied  their  steps,  granted 
all  their  wishes,  filled  their  houses  with  wealth,  made  them  happy 
in  love  and  victorious  in  war.  Such  a spirit  is  Liberty.  At 
times  she  takes  the  form  of  a hateful  reptile.  She  grovels,  she 
hisses,  she  stings.  But  woe  to  those  who  in  disgust  shall  venture 
to  crush  her  ! And  happy  are  those  who,  having  dared  to  receive 
her  in  her  degraded  and  frightful  shape,  shall  at  length  be 
rewarded  by  her  in  the  time  of  her  beauty  and  her  glory. 

Macaulay. 

Observe  the  two  short,  simple  sentences,  ‘‘Such  a spirit  is 
Liberty.  At  times  she  takes  the  form  of  a hateful  reptile.” 
Coming,  as  they  do,  after  several  longer  sentences,  they  are 
singularly  emphatic  by  reason  of  their  brevity  and  directness. 


COMPOUND  SENTENCES. 


281 


A short,  simple  sentence,  without  many  modifiers,  is  of 
great  service  when  you  wish  to  make  an  important  fact 
or  idea  stand  out  prominently  in  the  reader’s  mind. 

Again,  a series  of  short  sentences  is  often  forcible. 

In  the  sixth  paragraph  of  Macaulay’s  “ Siege  of  Arcot  ” (p.  353), 
notice  the  series  of  short  sentences  beginning  with  the  words 
Rajah  Sahib.  Such  a series  gives  an  effect  of  suspense  and 
excitement  which  could  be  produced  in  no  other  way. 

There  is  one  risk,  however,  in  using  a series  of  short 
sentences : the  passage  may  sound  disjointed  or,  as  we 
say,  “ jerky.” 

Macaulay  avoids  this  fault  with  great  skill.  For  several  lines 
he  changes  the  sentence  structure  as  little  as  possible.  In  four 
successive  short  sentences  he  keeps  our  attention  on  Kajah  Sahib, 
the  subject  of  the  first;  and  in  two  of  them  (with  the  longer 
sentence  which  follows)  he  uses  the  same  subject  (he).  Thus  the 
thought  is  so  closely  connected  by  means  of  the  likeness  in  struc- 
ture that  the  series  of  short  sentences  does  not  seem  disjointed. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — In  this  section  too  great  stress  should  not  be  laid 
on  the  grammatical  distinction  between  simple  and  compound  sentences. 
The  difference  in  rhetorical  effect  between  short  compound  sentences  and 
simple  sentences  of  about  the  same  length  is  often  very  slight. 


SECTION  209. 

THE  USE  OF  COMPOUND  SENTENCES. 

A compound  sentence  affords  the  simplest  means  of 
expressing  two  or  more  ideas  in  combination  as  a single 
idea  of  a more  comprehensive  kind.  This  form  of  sen- 
tence structure  is,  in  fact,  an  indication  to  the  reader 
that  the  clauses  are  not  to  be  taken  separately,  as  the 


282 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


expression  of  unrelated  facts,  but  are  to  fall  together  in 
his  mind  as  parts  of  a larger  whole. 

The  manner  in  which  the  clauses  are  joined  points  out  their 
bearing  on  each  other.  If  you  use  and  to  connect  them,  you 
indicate  that  they  have  the  same  general  bearing,  — that  they 
are  simply  to  be  regarded  as  component  parts  of  a larger  unit. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  shows  that  the  clause  that  follows  is 
opposed  to  that  which  precedes.  Or  signifies  that  the  clauses 
are  alternatives ; for,  that  one  gives  the  reason  of  the  other. 
Finally,  if  you  employ  a colon,  a semicolon,  or  a comma  instead 
of  a connective,  you  indicate  merely  that  the  ideas  should  be 
taken  together,  but  you  do  not  define  their  relation  to  each  other. 

Newman’s  Definition  of  a Gentleman  ” (p.  355) 
illustrates  the  proper  function  of  compound  sentences. 

Here  the  author  has  to  enumerate  a great  many  qualities  and 
habits  which  together  make  up  the  character  that  he  is  describ- 
ing, and  which,  in  his  estimation,  are  all  of  nearly  equal  impor- 
tance. Hence  he  uses  many  compound  sentences  ; for  in  such  a 
sentence  the  clauses  are  coordinate,  — that  is,  of  equal  order  or 
rank. 


SECTION  210. 

ABUSE  OF  COMPOUND  SENTENCES. 

The  commonest  abuse  of  compound  sentences  comes 
from  indolence  and  vague  thinking,  and  results  in  an 
intolerable  sameness  of  style. 

Nothing  is  more  tiresome  and  monotonous  than  a 
string  of  coordinate  clauses  loosely  held  together  by 
and's.  Such  a style  betrays  the  writer’s  lack  of  dis- 
crimination. It  shows  that  he  distinguishes  neither 


ABUSE  OF  COMPOUND  SENTENCES. 


283 


the  comparative  importance  of  the  statements  that  he 
makes  nor  their  logical  relation  to  each  other  in  the 
expression  of  his  thought. 

An  extreme  instance  of  this  abuse  is  the  slovenly 
habit,  in  telling  a story,  of  tacking  all  the  sentences 
together  with  The  same  fault  is  illustrated,  in  a 

less  degree,  by  the  trick  of  writing  in  isolated  compound 
sentences,  each  consisting  of  two  clauses  joined  by  this 
same  conjunction. 

Read  the  following  passage  from  an  essay  on  the 
system  of  training  crews  at  a large  university : — 

Gradually  the  candidates  are  rounded  into  form  and  those 
having  greater  aptitude  show  greater  and. greater  improvement. 
The  most  elementary  work  is  over  and  now  it  becomes  necessary 
to  devote  more  attention  to  each  man  personally.  The  class  is 
yet  very  large  and  this  can  be  done  only  by  weeding  out  the  ones 
that  are  most  backward.  No  preference  is  shown  and  any  man 
showing  up  well  will  be  retained.  The  method  is  entirely 
competitive  and  every  one  is  given  an  equal  chance. 

Here  we  have  ten  consecutive  statements,  uniformly 
arranged  in  coordinated  j)airs.  The  passage  is  so  monot- 
onous and  uninteresting  that  it  is  hard  to  keep  the 
mind  awake  while  we  read  it.  Further,  the  ill-judged 
coordination  obscures  the  two  points  that  the  writer  is 
endeavoring  to  make : (1)  that  the  system  leads  to  a 
gradual  selection  of  the  best  men,  and  (2)  that  in  this 
selection  every  one  has  a fair  chance. 

The  passage  might  be  rewritten  as  follows : — 

Gradually,  as  the  elementary  work  is  over  and  the  candidates 
are  rounded  into  form,  those  who  have  greater  aptitude  show 
greater  and  greater  improvement.  It  now  becomes  necessary  to 
devote  more  attention  to  each  man  personally ; but,  since  the 


284 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


class  is  still  very  large,  this  can  be  done  only  by  weeding  ont 
those  who  are  most  backward.  Since  the  method  is  entirely 
competitive  and  no  preference  is  shown,  any  man  who  promises 
well  is  retained.  Every  one  has  an  equal  chance. 

In  this  new  form  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  strike 
out  the  repetitions,  and  few  changes  have  been  made  in 
the  feeble  wording  of  the  original;  but  now  the  two 
main  points  stand  out  conspicuously.  As  you  read  the 
passage,  you  grasp  its  meaning  without  effort ; for  the 
statements  are  so  arranged  by  means  of  the  sentence 
structure  that  the  important  facts  cannot  fail  to  catch 
the  attention. 

All  the  facts  in  a series  are  seldom  of  equal  impor- 
tance : one  may  give  the  time  or  the  place  of  another ; 
it  may  indicate  a cause,  a condition,  a concession,  and 
so  on.  In  such  cases,  the  coordinate  structure  obscures 
the  actual  relation  of  the  facts  and  disguises  their  com- 
parative importance. 

Compositions  in  which  such  unthinking  coordination 
predominates  exemplify  the  adage,  “ Easy  writing,  hard 
reading  ” ; for  they  give  the  reader  trouble  which  the 
writer  ought  to  have  taken  himself. 

Always  consider  how  the  thoughts  which  you  wish 
to  express  are  related  to  each  other,  and  let  the  mean- 
ing govern  your  choice  between  compound  and  complex 
sentences.  If  one  thought  depends  upon  the  other,  the 
chances  are  that  some  form  of  complex  sentence  will 
afford  an  easy  means  of  suggesting  this  relation. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — Pupils  should  not  be  allowed  to  think  that  coordi- 
nation is  a rhetorical  fault.  They  should  he  led  to  distinguish  between 
cases  in  which  this  structure  best  expresses  the  thought  and  those  in 
which  it  represents  no  thought  at  all. 


COMPLEX  SENTENCES. 


285 


SECTION  211. 

COMPLEX  SENTENCES. 

Thought  is  not  a simple  process.  The  experiment 
on  page  276  has  shown  us  that  the  idea  on  which  our 
attention  is  fixed  at  a given  moment  is  always  accom- 
panied and  followed  by  other  ideas  which  color  or 
modify  it.  The  relations  among  these  ideas  are  often 
so  complicated  that  simple  and  even  compound  sentences 
provide  no  adequate  means  of  expressing  them.  Yet 
they  must  be  expressed.  Hence  language,  adapting 
itself  to  the  ever-growing  complexity  of  thought,  has 
wrought  out  the  complex  sentence. 

Compare  a young  child  and  a trained  naturalist 
engaged  in  observing  the  same  occurrence. 

The  child  sees  the  main  act  and  is  content  with  expressing  it 
in  a simple  sentence,  — My  cat  caught  a rat.” 

The  man  of  science  notes  mai^  other  significant  details.  In 
the  build  of  the  cat,  in  its  manner  of  crouching  and  swishing  its 
tail,  in  the  stripes  of  its  fur,  in  the  way  in  which  its  claws  are 
hidden  in  the  cushions,  he  detects  its  relation  to  the  other  feline 
animals,  — such  as  the  lion,  the  tiger,  and  the  panther.  His 
thought  is  therefore  far  more  complicated  than  the  child’s,  and 
accordingly  his  expression  of  that  thought  requires  a complex 
sentence.  He  might  say,  perhaps,  Since  the  cat  belongs  to  the 
feline  race,  it  crouches  and  springs  when  it  catches  a rat  ” ; or. 
The  cat,  as  it  crouches  beside  the  rat  hole,  shows  the  same  instinct 
that  prompts  a tiger  to  hide  in  the  jungle  near  a spring  to  which 
the  deer  come  to  drink.” 

If  the  naturalist  had  only  simple  or  compound  sentences  to 
use,  he  would  find  it  well-nigh  impossible  to  indicate  the  relations 
between  the  various  facts  as  they  lie  in  his  mind.  “ The  cat 


286 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


crouches  by  the  rat  hole ; the  tiger  crouches  by  a spring  in  the 
jungle ; the  deer  come  to  the  spring  to  drink ; the  cat  and  the 
tiger  have  the  same  instinct  ” would  be  a ludicrously  insufficient 
expression  of  the  thought  which  he  wishes  to  convey. 

The  history  of  language  is  much  like  the  history  of 
a child  learning  to  talk  (see  p.  277).  In  both  cases,  the 
order  of  development  is  from  simple  sentences  to  com- 
pound, and  from  compound  sentences  to  complex.  The 
growth  is  natural,  not  artificial.  The  development  of 
sentence  structure  has  simply  kept  pace  with  the  devel- 
opment of  the  human  intellect. 

In  this  process  of  linguistic  development,  the  numerous 
subordinating  words  (relative  pronouns,  relative  adverbs, 
and  subordinate  conjunctions)  have  acquired  their  pres- 
ent functions.  The  variety  of  these  words  and  their 
manifold  use  show  how  essential  the  complex  sentence 
has  become  in  the  expression  of  thought. 

Your  study  of  grammar  has  already  made  you 
acquainted  with  the  different  kinds  of  subordinate 
clauses  and  with  the  ideas  that  they  convey.  The 
pronoun,  adverb,  or  conjunction  that  introduces  the 
subordinate  clauses  serves,  in  each  case,  as  a kind  of 
sign-post  to  point  the  way  which  the  reader’s  mind  is 
to  take. 

Thus,  because  indicates  that  the  subordinate  clause  that  follows 
gives  the  cause  or  reason  of  the  statement  made  in  the  main 
clause ; in  order  that  suggests  purpose ; though,  concession ; if, 
condition,  and  so  on. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — If  the  necessary  details  with  regard  to  the  nature 
and  form  of  subordinate  clauses  are  not  fresh  in  the  pupil’s  mind,  a review 
of  the  grammar  may  be  necessary  at  this  point.  (See  “ The  Mother  Tongue,” 
Book  II,  pp.  294-310.) 


EMPHASIS  IN  COMPLEX  SENTENCES. 


287 


SECTION  212. 

EMPHASIS  IN  COMPLEX  SENTENCES. 

Emphasis  may  be  indicated  by  the  structure  of  a 
complex  sentence. 

Contrast  the  following  sentences : — 

The  constitution  was  adopted  by  all  the  states,  and  Washington 
was  elected  president. 

After  the  constitution  was  adopted  by  all  the  states,  Washing- 
ton was  elected  president. 

The  constitution  was  adopted  by  all  the  states  before  Washing- 
ton was  elected  president. 

The  first  sentence  is  compound ; the  second  and  third 
are  complex.  In  the  first,  there  is  no  distinction  of 
emphasis  between  the  two  clauses.  In  the  second,  the 
emphasis  is  thrown  on  the  election  of  W ashington ; in 
the  third,  on  the  adoption  of  the  constitution.  Thus,  by 
the  change  of  a single  word,  it  is  possible  to  throw  one 
or  another  statement  into  stronger  relief.  Observe  that 
in  each  case  it  is  the  main  clause  on  which  the  emphasis 
naturally  rests. 

If  you  try  to  count  the  pickets  in  a fence,  your  eye 
will  soon  become  confused  and  you  will  lose  your 
place.”  So  it  is  difficult  to  keep  the  attention  fixed  in 
reading  a passage  which  consists  of  coordinate  clauses 
of  about  the  same  length  and  emphasis.  In  writing, 
therefore,  take  care  to  make  the  important  statements 
stand  out  among  the  less  important.  This  you  may 
often  accomplish  by  means  of  the  complex  sentence. 


288 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  213. 

CHAINS  OF  RELATIVES. 

English  is  fond  of  relative  constructions,  and  there  is, 
in  grammatical  theory,  no  limit  to  the  number  of  rela- 
tive clauses  that  a complex  sentence  may  include.  In 
practice,  however,  we  must  take  care  not  to  multiply 
such  clauses  excessively. 

A long  chain  of  relatives  (as  in  “The  House  that 
Jack  Built”)  gives  a sentence  the  air  of  running  on 
forever  because  it  does  not  know  where  to  stop.  Unity 
is  pretty  sure  to  be  violated.  The  effect  is  not  only 
ungraceful  but  extremely  confusing,  and  may  even 
become  ridiculous,  as  the  intention  is  in  the  nursery  tale 
just  mentioned. 

Find  a chain  of  relatives  in  one  of  your  own  compo- 
sitions, and  see  if  you  cannot  improve  the  style  by 
breaking  up  the  complex  sentence. 

SECTION  214. 

VARIETY. 

The  thoughts  and  feelings  which  we  have  to  express 
vary  infinitely.  Hence  our  sentences,  if  they  are  to 
reproduce  these  thoughts  and  feelings  with  an  approach 
to  accuracy  and  completeness,  must  show  a correspond- 
ing variety. 

For  this  purpose,  we  have  at  our  disposal  three 
kinds  of  sentences,  simple,  compound,  and  complex  ; 
and  each  of  these,  as  we  have  already  learned,  may 


VARIETY. 


289 


vary  considerably  both  in  length  and  in  structure.  Our 
style,  therefore,  need  never  be  monotonous  unless  our 
processes  of  thought  are  stiff-jointed  and  mechanical. 

Read  Hawthorne’s  Tanglewood  Porch  ” (pp.  346-8) 
and  notice  the  ease  and  the  variety  of  his  sentences. 

Some  are  long,  others  short.  In  some,  the  meaning  is  held  in 
suspense  until  the  last  word  is  reached;  in  others,  there  is  a suc- 
cession of  clauses  and  phrases,  after  any  one  of  which  you  could 
stop  without  injuring  the  sense.  Some  of  them  ramble  on  in  the 
most  natural  way ; others  lead  up  to  an  important  word  at  the 
end.  Everywhere  we  find  ease,  grace,  and  flexibility  of  expression. 

The  charm  of  Hawthorne’s  style  consists,  in  great 
part,  in  the  adaptation  of  sentence  structure  to  every 
turn  of  thought  and  fancy.  There  is  no  apparent  striv- 
ing after  variety  for  its  own  sake.  In  fact,  however, 
such  ease  and  grace  are  not  attained,  even  by  the  great 
writers,  without  a long  apprenticeship  to  the  art  of 
composition.  Before  Hawthorne  could  trust  his  pen 
to  follow  his  mind  through  all  its  ‘‘ forthrights  and 
meanders,”  he  had  to  familiarize  himself,  by  constant 
practice,  with  the  almost  infinite  possibilities  of  the  Eng- 
lish sentence.  This  done,  he  commanded  his  phrases 
and  sentences  as  a violinist  commands  his  wrist  and 
fingers  in  playing  his  instrument. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — Reference  has  already  been  made  to  Franklin’s 
education  as  a writer  (p.  9).  For  further  evidence  of  the  pains  and  trouble 
which  distinguished  authors  have  had  to  take  in  learning  how  to  express 
themselves,  see  Swift’s  “Works,”  edited  by  Scott,  Vol.  XV,  p.  252; 
Trevelyan’s  “ Life  and  Letters  of  Lord  Macaulay,”  New  York,  1898,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  191-201;  Stevenson’s  essay  entitled  “A  College  Magazine,”  in  his 
“Memories  and  Portraits”;  Darwin’s  “Life  and  Letters,”  New  York, 
1887,  Vol.  I,  p.  80.  The  passage  in  Darwin  is  interesting  with  respect  to 
the  method  of  arranging  an  exifianation. 


290 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  215. 

ANTITHESIS. 

The  possibilities  of  variety  in  the  English  sentence 
are  almost  infinite.  Certain  types  of  arrangement,  how- 
ever, are  so  marked  and  so  generally  useful  that  they 
deserve  special  notice. 

Antithesis  (that  is,  ‘‘opposition”)  is  a contrast  between 
different  ideas  or  thoughts,  whether  these  are  expressed 
in  single  words  or  in  groups  of  words.  The  antithesis 
is  often  emphasized  by  putting  the  contrasted  words, 
phrases,  or  clauses  in  the  same  relative  position  in  the 
sentence,  — that  is,  by  parallelism  of  arrangement.  Thus,  — 

Talent  is  power,  tact  is  skill ; talent  is  weight,  tact  is  momen- 
tum. Talent  knows  what  to  do,  tact  knows  how  to  do  it ; talent 
makes  a man  respectable,  tact  will  make  him  respected ; talent 
is  wealth,  tact  is  ready  money. 

Here  the  difference  between  talent  and  tact  is  made  evident 
almost  as  much  by  the  structure  of  the  sentence  as  by  the  anti- 
thetical words. 

Skilful  use  of  antithesis  produces  an  effect  of  epigram- 
matic pungency ; excess  of  it,  an  effect  of  shallow 
cleverness. 

Study  the  following  examples  of  antithesis,  and  observe 
whether  there  is  also  a parallelism  of  arrangement. 

1.  I am  the  last  of  noble  Edward’s  sons. 

Of  whom  thy  father,  prince  of  Wales,  was  first. 

In  war,  was  never  lion  raged  more  fierce ; 

In  peace,  was  never  gentle  lamb  more  mild. 

2.  If  all  the  year  were  i3laying  holidays. 

To  sport  would  be  as  tedious  as  to  work. 


ANTITHESIS. 


291 


3.  See  the  same  man  in  vigor,  in  the  gout ; 

Alone,  in  company ; in  place,  or  out ; 

Early  at  business,  and  at  hazard  late ; 

Mad  at  a fox-chase,  wise  at  a debate. 

4.  Tom  struts  a soldier,  open,  bold  and  brave ; 

Will  sneaks  a scrivener,  an  exceeding  knave. 

5.  Between  excess  and  famine  lies  a mean ; 

Plain,  but  not  sordid ; though  not  splendid,  clean. 

6.  Not  to  go  back,  is  somewhat  to  advance ; 

And  men  must  walk  at  least  before  they  dance. 

7.  And  what  is  fame?  The  meanest  have  their  day. 

The  greatest  can  but  blaze,  and  pass  away. 

8.  No  porter  guards  the  passage  of  your  door. 

To  admit  the  wealthy  and  exclude  the  poor ; 

But  God,  who  gave  the  riches,  gave  the  heart 

To  sanctify  the  whole  by  giving  part. 

9.  In  taking  revenge,  a man  is  but  even  with  his  enemy ; but 
in  passing  it  over,  he  is  superior. 

10.  Costly  followers  are  not  to  be  liked ; lest,  while  a man 
maketh  his  train  longer,  he  make  his  wings  shorter. 

11.  A man  is  but  an  ill  husband  of  his  honor  that  entereth 
into  any  action  the  failing  wherein  may  disgrace  him  more  than 
the  carrying  of  it  through  can  honor  him. 

12.  Envy,  which  is  the  canker  of  honor,  is  best  extinguished 
by  declaring  a man’s  self  in  his  ends  rather  to  seek  merit  than 
fame,  and  by  attributing  a man’s  successes  rather  to  divine  provi- 
dence and  felicity  than  to  his  own  virtue  or  policy. 

13.  Read  not  to  contradict  and  confute,  nor  to  believe  and 
take  for  granted,  nor  to  find  talk  and  discourse,  but  to  weigh  and 
consider. 

Observe  that,  as  antithesis  does  not  require  parallelism 
in  arrangement,  so  parallelism  does  not  imply  antithesis. 
This  fact  is  sufficiently  illustrated  by  the  sentences  on 
page  59. 


292 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  216. 

BALANCED  SENTENCES. 

Balance  is  of  the  same  nature  as  antithesis,  except  that 
it  dhes  not  necessarily  imply  a comparison  or  contrast. 
Two  phrases  or  clauses  are  balanced  when  they  have  the 
same  construction  and  are  of  about  the  same  length. 
Thus,  — 

It  is  good  also  not  to  try  experiments  in  states,  except  the 
necessity  be  urgent,  or  the  utility  evident;  and  well  to  beware 
that  it  be  the  reformation  that  draweth  on  the  change,  and  not 
the  desire  of  change  that  pretendeth  the  reformation.  — Bacon. 

Here,  in  the  first  clause,  the  necessity  he  urgent  is  balanced  by 
the  utility  evident ; in  the  second  clause,  the  reformation  that  draweth 
on  the  change  is  balanced  by  the  desire  of  change  that  pretendeth 
the  reformation  ; and  the  whole  of  the  second  clause  balances  the 
whole  of  the  first.  The  ideas  are  thus  reinforced  and  their  rela- 
tions emphasized  by  the  sound  of  the  sentence.  At  the  same 
time,  it  may  be  noted,  the  two  parts  of  the  second  clause  are  in 
antithesis. 

Compare  the  following  passage  from  Johnson:  — 

Every  one  must,  in  the  walks  of  life,  have  met  with  men  of 
whom  all  speak  with  censure,  though  they  are  not  chargeable 
with  any  crime,  and  whom  none  can  be  persuaded  to  love,  though 
a reason  can  scarcely  be  assigned  why  they  should  be  hated. 

Antithesis  and  balance  tend  to  dignity  of  style,  and 
are  therefore  common  in  serious  essays  and  in  orations, 
as  well  as  in  poetry.  Their  excessive  use,  however, 
results  in  a formal  and  stilted  diction. 

Examine  the  sentences  on  pages  290-91,  and  observe 
how  many  of  them  show  the  balanced  structure. 


CLIMAX. 


293 


SECTION  217, 

CLIMAX. 

Climax  is  a method  of  construction  by  which  words, 
phrases,  clauses,  or  sentences  are  arranged  in  the  order 
of  their  importance  or  emphasis,  the  most  important  or 
emphatic  coming  last. 

Thus  in  Bacon's  famous  sentence,  Some  books  are  to  be 
tasted,  others  to  be  swallowed,  and  some  few  to  be  chewed  and 
digested,"  the  second  kind  of  books  is  clearly  more  important 
than  the  first,  and  the  third  is  strongly  emphasized  by  being 
mentioned  after  the  other  two. 

A climax  should  proceed  in  a regular  ascending  series ; 
there  must  be  no  falling  off  in  the  emphasis  at  any  point. 

Thus,  if  Bacon's  sentence  is  so  transposed  as  to  read,  ‘‘  A few 
books  are  to  be  chewed  and  digested,  some  to  be  tasted,  others  to 
be  swallowed,"  the  point  will  be  obscured  or  lost  altogether. 

In  general,  at  least  three  words  or  clauses  are  neces- 
sary to  produce  a climax. 

Observe  the  climax  in  each  of  the  following  passages : 

1.  Horses  did  neigh,  and  dying  men  did  groan. 

And  ghosts  did  shriek  and  squeal  about  the  streets. 

2.  If  thou  dost  bend,  and  pray,  and  fawn  for  him, 

I spurn  thee  like  a cur  out  of  my  way. 

3.  Say,  I feared  Csesar,  honored  him,  and  loved  him. 

4.  Thy  palate  then  did  deign 
The  roughest  berry  on  the  rudest  hedge  ; 

Yea,  like  the  stag  when  snow  the  pasture  sheets. 

The  barks  of  trees  thou  browsed' st ; on  the  Alps, 

It  is  reported,  thou  didst  eat  strange  flesh. 

Which  some  did  die  to  look  on. 


294 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


6.  How  weary,  stale,  flat,  and  unprofitable 
Seem  to  me  all  the  uses  of  this  world. 

6.  I could  a tale  unfold  whose  lightest  word 
Would  harrow  up  thy  soul,  freeze  thy  young  blood. 

Make  thy  two  eyes,  like  stars,  start  from  their  spheres. 

Thy  knotted  and  combined  locks  to  part. 

And  each  particular  hair  to  stand  on  end 
Like  quills  upon  the  fretful  porpentine. 

7.  The  steed  is  vanished  from  the  stall; 

No  serf  is  seen  in  Hassan’s  hall; 

The  lonely  spider’s  thin  gray  pall 
Waves  slowly  widening  o’er  the  wall. 

8.  It  was  that  fatal  and  perfidious  bark. 

Built  in  th’  eclipse,  and  rigged  with  curses  dark. 

That  sunk  so  low  that  sacred  head  of  thine. 

9.  He  was  too  much  employed  to  observe  the  company,  who, 
by  nods,  winks,  shrugs,  and  stifled  laughter,  testified  every  mark 
of  contempt. 

The  method  of  the  climax  may  also  govern  the 
structure  of  a whole  composition,  as  we  have  already 
learned  in  the  case  of  stories  (see  p.  134). 

An  arrangement  in  which  the  least  important  member 
of  a series  comes  last  is  called  an  anticlimax,  — that  is, 
a ‘‘climax  reversed.”  It  is  a common  rhetorical  fault, 
but  may  be  utilized  occasionally  to  produce  a comic  or 
satirical  effect.  Thus,  — 

The  very  knocker  filled  his  soul  with  dread. 

As  if  it  had  a living  lion’s  mouth. 

With  teeth  so  terrible,  and  tongue  so  red. 

In  which  he  had  engaged  to  put  his  head. 

The  bell-pull  turned  his  courage  into  vapor. 

As  though ’t  would  cause  a shower-bath  to  shed 

Its  thousand  shocks,  to  make  him  sigh  and  caper,  — 

He  looked  askance,  and  did  not  like  the  scraper.  — Hood. 


PARALLEL  STRUCTURE. 


295 


SECTION  218. 

PARALLEL  STRUCTURE. 

We  have  already  seen  that  parallel  structure  is  an 
important  element  in  the  balanced  sentence  and  that  it 
adds  point  to  antithesis.  Climax  may  likewise  involve 
this  structure  (see  the  sentences  on  pages  293-4). 

Parallel  structure  in  a number  of  successive  sentences 
is  useful  when  several  facts  are  to  be  stated  which  all 
make  to  the  same  end  or  effect.  Newman’s  ‘‘Descrip- 
tion of  a Gentleman”  (pp.  355-56)  affords  numerous 
examples.  Compare  also  the  following  passages  : — 

In  that  spot,  then  very  secluded,  [Sir  William]  Temple  j^assed 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  The  air  agreed  with  him.  The  soil 
was  fruitful,  and  well  suited  to  an  experimental  farmer  and 
gardener.  The  grounds  were  laid  out  with  the  angular  regularity 
which  Sir  William  had  admired  in  the  flower  beds  of  Haarlem 
and  the  Hague.  — Macaulay. 

Sir,  during  that  state  of  things.  Parliament  was  not  idle. 
They  attempted  to  subdue  the  fierce  spirit  of  the  Welsh  by  all 
sorts  of  rigorous  laws.  They  prohibited  by  statute  the  sending 
of  all  arms  into  Wales,  as  you  prohibit  by  proclamation  (with 
something  more  of  doubt  on  the  legality)  the  sending  of  arms  to 
America.  They  disarmed  the  Welsh  by  statute,  as  you  attempted 
(but  still  with  more  doubt  on  the  legality)  to  disarm  New  Eng- 
land by  an  instruction.  They  made  an  act  to  drag  offenders 
from  Wales  into  England  for  trial,  as  you  have  done  (but  with 
more  hardship)  with  regard  to  America.  They  made  acts  to 
restrain  trade  as  you  do;  and  they  prevented  the  Welsh  from 
the  use  of  fairs  and  markets,  as  you  do  the  Americans  from 
fisheries  and  foreign  ports.  In  short,  when  the  statute-book  was 
not  quite  so  much  swelled  as  it  is  now,  you  find  no  less  than 
fifteen  acts  of  penal  regulation  on  the  subject  of  Wales.  — Burke. 


296 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


If  the  parallel  structure  is  too  long  continued,  or  if  it  is 
employed  when  the  several  facts  are  not  strictly  parallel 
in  meaning,  it  produces  an  effect  of  monotony  and  pov- 
erty of  thought.  When  properly  used,  it  enhances  not 
only  perspicuity,  but  also  expressiveness  of  style. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — It  is  to  be  noted  that  antithesis,  balance,  climax, 
and  parallel  structure  are  not  mutually  exclusive  terms.  They  may  all 
apply  to  the  same  passage,  and  it  is  therefore  unwise  to  insist  on  hair- 
splitting distinctions.  Antithesis  is  abundantly  exemplified  in  Bacon’s 
“ Essays  ” and  Johnson’s  “ Lives  of  the  Poets  ” (see  especially  the  famous 
parallel  between  Dry  den  and  Pope  at  the  end  of  the  “Life  of  Pope”). 
Macaulay  is  fond  of  parallel  structure  and  climax.  Stevenson’s  writings 
are  characterized  by  constant  use  of  subtle  balance.  The  pupil  should 
notice  that  style  grows  more  formal  as  these  qualities  become  more 
obviously  frequent. 


SECTION  219. 

PERIODIC  SENTENCES. 

Sometimes  the  different  parts  of  our  thought  are  so 
various,  and  yet  so  intimately  related,  that,  without  a 
complex  sentence,  which  knits  together  the  different 
strands  by  means  of  subordinate  clauses,  participial 
phrases,  and  similar  modifiers,  we  should  find  it  impos- 
sible to  bring  our  meaning  to  an  adequate  expression. 
At  other  times,  our  ideas  take  shape  one  by  one,  in 
orderly  sequence,  but  without  combining  or  much 
affecting  each  other,  and  accordingly  our  sentences  fall 
naturally  into  the  compound  structure,  and  their  parts 
are  held  together  by  coordinate  conjunctions. 

In  the  former  case,  the  sense  and  the  grammatical  con- 
struction may  be  so  suspended  that  neither  is  complete 
until  the  last  word  of  the  sentence  is  reached.  Such  a 


PERIODIC  SENTENCES. 


297 


sentence  is  said  to  be  periodic.  In  tlie  latter  case,  we 
can  stop  at  one  or  more  points  before  we  come  to  the 
end,  and  the  sentence  is  still  grammatically  complete. 
Such  a sentence  is  said  to  be  loose.  The  same  distinc- 
tion is  made  in  the  structure  of  individual  clauses. 

The  first  sentence  in  the  last  paragraph  but  one  is  periodic, 
the  second  is  loose. 

It  is  important  to  remark  that  the  adjective  loose  in 
this  sense  is  merely  a technical  term  describing  a variety 
of  sentence  structure.  It  carries  no  suggestion  of 
reproach.  Loose  sentences  are  just  as  proper  as  periodic 
sentences.  In  fact,  the  natural  tendency  of  our  lan- 
guage is  particularly  favorable  to  them,  as  the  natural 
tendency  of  Latin  is  favorable  to  the  periodic  structure. 
Comparatively  few  English  sentences  are  periodic 
throughout,  though  many  are  partly  so  and  single 
clauses  are  often  built  on  the  periodic  plan.  Excessive 
periodicity  is  stilted;  excessive  looseness  is  slovenly. 
The  best  style  is  that  which  adapts  the  form  of  the 
sentences  easily  and  spontaneously  to  the  character  of 
the  thought  expressed. 

Examine  the  following  passage  from  Thackeray’s 
“Pendennis”:  — 

‘Shortly  after  Strong  had  quitted  the  room,  and  whilst  Mr. 
Pen,  greatly  irate  at  his  downfall  in  the  waltz,  which  made  him 
look  ridiculous  in  the  eyes  of  the  nation,  and  by  Miss  Amory’s 
behavior  to  him,  which  had  still  further  insulted  his  dignity, 
was  endeavoring  to  get  some  coolness  of  body  and  temper  by 
looking  out  of  window  towards  the  sea,  which  was  sparkling  in 
the  distance,  and  murmuring  in  a wonderful  calm,  — whilst  he  was 
really  trying  to  compose  himself,  and  owning  to  himself,  perhaps, 
that  he  had  acted  in  a very  absurd  and  peevish  manner  during  the 


298 


THE  MOTHEK  TONGUE. 


night,  — he  felt  a hand  on  his  shoulder : and,  on  looking  round, 
beheld  to  his  utter  surprise  and  horror,  that  the  hand  in  question 
belonged  to  Monsieur  Mirobolant,  whose  eyes  were  glaring  out  of 
his  pale  face  and  ringlets  at  Mr.  Pen.  To  be  tapped  on  the 
shoulder  by  a French  cook  was  a piece  of  familiarity  which  made 
the  blood  of  the  Pendennises  to  boil  up  in  the  veins  of  their 
descendant,  and  he  was  astounded,  almost  more  than  enraged,  at 
such  an  indignity. 

The  first  sentence  in  this  passage  is  periodic  as  far  as 
a hand  on  his  shoulder. 

The  author,  wishing  us  to  comprehend  Pen’s  frame  of  mind  at 
the  moment  when  Mirobolant  ventured  to  be  familiar,  does  not 
allow  our  minds  to  close  the  thought  until  he  has  brought 
together  all  the  details  which  contributed  to  that  frame  of  mind. 
The  rest  of  the  sentence  is  looser  in  structure.  The  second  sen- 
tence is  partly  periodic  and  partly  loose.  Both  are  excellent, 
and  neither  is  better  than  the  other. 

An  excellent  specimen  of  a loose  sentence  may  be 
taken  from  the  same  page  of  Pendennis.” 

The  consequences  are  that  I will  fling  you  out  of  window,  you 
impudent  scoundrel,”  bawled  out  Mr.  Pen  : and  darting  upon  the 
Frenchman,  he  would  very  likely  have  put  his  threat  into  execu- 
tion, for  the  window  was  at  hand,  and  the  artist  by  no  means  a 
match  foFthe  young  gentleman  — had  not  Captain  Broadfoot  and 
another  heavy  officer  flung  themselves  between  the  combatants,  — 
had  not  the  ladies  begun  to  scream,  — had  not  the  Addle  stopped, 

— had  not  the  crowd  of  people  come  running  in  that  direction, 

— had  not  Laura,  with  a face  of  great  alarm,  looked  over  their 
heads  and  asked  for  Heaven’s  sake  what  was  wrong,  — had  not 
the  opportune  Strong  made  his  appearance  from  the  refreshment - 
room,  and  found  Alcide  grinding  his  teeth  and  jabbering  oaths 
in  his  Gascon  French,  and  Pen  looking  uncommonly  wicked, 
although  trying  to  appear  as  calm  as  possible  when  the  ladies 
and  the  crowd  came  up. 


PUNCTUATIOX. 


299 


Here  the  long  succession  of  clauses,  added  one  after 
another,  is  well  adapted  to  express  the  swift  succession 
of  events.  In  this  sentence,  then,  the  loose  structure 
is  preferable  to  the  periodic. 


To  THE  Teacher.  — In  discussing  this  subject  it  will  be  necessary  to 
put  the  pupil  on  his  guard  against  the  erroneous  notion  that  a loose  sen- 
tence is  a bad  sentence,  or  indicative  of  looseness  of  thought.  The  term 
is  an  unfortunate  one,  but  is  fixed  in  the  technical  vocabulary  of  rhetoric. 
The  pupil  should  notice  how  prevalent  loose  sentences  are  in  the  very  best 
authors,  and  may  learn  by  experiment  that  strictly  periodic  sentences 
are  correspondingly  rare.  Modern  English  style  tends  distinctly  toward 
moderate  “ looseness  ” and  away  from  elaborate  periodicity. 


SECTION  220. 

PUXCTUATIOX. 

Punctuation  is  a device  for  indicating  to  the  eye  the 
pauses  and  the  modulations  of  the  voice  which  do  so 
much  to  make  spoken  language  intelligible  and  expres- 
sive.^ It  is  an  imperfect  device,  to  be  sure,  for  no  sys- 
tem of  ‘‘points”  can  represent  the  infinite  variety  of 
these  phenomena ; but,  such  as  it  is,  it  assists  the  reader 
considerably  and  must  therefore  be  carefully  attended 
to.  See  if  you  can  make  sense  out  of  the  following- 
passage  : — 

Thought  and  speech  are  inseparable  from  each  other  matter 
and  expression  are  parts  of  one  style  is  a thinking  out  into  lan- 
guage this  is  what  I have  been  laying  down  and  this  is  literature 
not  things  not  the  verbal  symbols  of  things  not  on  the  other  hand 
mere  words  but  thoughts  expressed  in  language. 


1 For  the  rules  of  punctuation,  see  Appendix. 


300 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


Now  read  the  same  passage,  properly  punctuated,  as 
it  came  from  the  hand  of  the  author  (Newman),  and 
you  will  appreciate  the  usefulness  of  punctuation. 

Thought  and  speech  are  inseparable  from  each  other.  Matter 
and  expression  are  parts  of  one : style  is  a thinking  out  into  lan- 
guage. This  is  what  I have  been  laying  down,  and  this  is  litera- 
ture; not  things,  not  the  verbal  symbols  of  things;  not  on  the 
other  hand  mere  words;  but  thoughts  expressed  in  language. 

Punctuation,  you  observe,  indicates  the  natural  group- 
ing of  the  words  into  phrases,  clauses,  and  sentences,  and 
this  grouping  is  an  essential  part  of  the  expression  of 
thought. 

The  most  important  mark  of  punctuation  is  the  period, 
since  we  need  particularly  to  know  where  a sentence 
ends.  Yeb  as  the  passage  from  Newman  shows,  the 
colon  and  the  semicolon  are  of  great  utility  in  marking 
the  natural  divisions  of  the  thought  within  the  limits  of 
a single  sentence.  The  semicolon,  indeed,  is  often  quite 
as  effective  as  a conjunction. 

In  the  following  sentence  from  Stevenson  the  first 
two  semicolons  make  conjunctions  between  the  clauses 
unnecessary : — 

I had  all  my  first  pains ; my  throat  was  so  sore  I could  scarce 
swallow ; I had  a fit  of  strong  shuddering,  which  clucked  my 
teeth  together;  and  there  came  on  me  that  dreadful  sense  of 
illness  for  which  we  have  no  name  either  in  Scotch  or  English. 

You  should  form  the  habit  of  punctuating  your  sen- 
tences as  you  write,  in  order  to  make  them  more  easily 
intelligible.  If  you  try  to  imagine  how  each  sentence 
would  sound  if  you  were  speaking,  you  will  do  this 
almost  unconsciously. 


EXERCISES  IN  SENTENCES. 


301 


SECTION  221. 

EXERCISES  IN  SENTENCES. 

1.  Study  the  sentences  in  The  Country  in  Winter  (p.  161). 
a.  Observe  the  variety  in  sentence  structure. 

h.  See  if  you  can  find  any  short  emphatic  sentences, 
c.  Try  to  express  the  thought  of  the  third  paragraph  in 
simple  sentences  only.  Note  the  effect. 

2.  Select  two  complex  sentences  from  The  Battle  of  Bannock- 
burn ’’  (p.  11).  Vary  the  emphasis  by  rearranging  the  modifiers 
in  different  ways.  In  each  case  state  the  effect  of  the  change. 

3.  Review  pp.  48-56.  Study  the  sentences  in  these  exercises, 
with  a view  not  merely  to  the  form  and  the  grammatical  con- 
struction but  to  the  change  in  the  shade  of  thought  or  of  emphasis 
expressed  by  each  change  of  structure. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — This  exercise  is  not  intended  merely  as  a review. 
The  pupil  should  now  be  ready  to  scrutinize  the  sentences  in  question  in  a 
maturer  and  more  philosophical  way  and  to  see  more  clearly  the  connection 
of  their  form  with  the  relations  of  thought  which  they  express.  Addi- 
tional exercises  may  be  based  on  “ The  Siege  of  Arcot  ” (pp.  350-4).  The 
amount  of  time  devoted  to  work  of  this  kind  will  depend  on  the  condition 
of  the  class.  Constant  practice  will  habituate  them  to  the  use  of  different 
forms  of  the  sentence.  The  correction  of  each  other’s  essays  will  assist 
them  to  perceive  and  appreciate  the  adaptation  of  form  to  thought.  The 
purpose  of  this  training  should  be  made  clear  to  the  pupils.  They  should 
understand  that  these  exercises  are  not  mere  classroom  drill,  but  that  they 
have  a practical  bearing  on  the  art  of  composition. 

4.  Bring  to  the  class  twelve  examples  of  different  kinds  of 
subordinate  clauses. 

Show  how  the  statements  in  the  subordinate  clauses  are  related 
to  those  in  the  main  clauses ; and  explain  the  force  of  the  subor- 
dinating connective  in  each  sentence. 

5.  Rewrite  the  sentences,  indicating  the  relations  between  the 
clauses  without  the  use  of  subordinating  connectives.  Compare 
them  with  the  original  sentences. 


302 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


6.  Make  as  complete  a list  as  you  can  of  the  different  ways  in 
which  a clause  may  be  subordinated. 

7.  Pick  out  a dozen  complex  sentences  in  which  the  subordi- 
nate clauses  are  introduced  in  different  ways  and  stand  in  different 
parts  of  the  sentence. 

8.  Write  a series  of  statements  on  (1)  swimming,  (2)  Wash- 
ington, (3)  your  school. 

Combine  each  series  into  a set  of  (1)  compound  sentences  of 
various  forms;  and  (2)  complex  sentences  of  various  forms. 
Study  the  difference  in  effect. 

9.  Review  the  compositions  in  your  notebook,  criticising  par- 
ticularly the  complex  and  the  compound  sentences,  in  accordance 
with  the  principles  stated  in  Sections  209-13. 

10.  Rewrite  the  sentences  on  your  school  into  a series  consist- 
ing chiefly  of  complex  sentences,  in  which  the  principal  clauses 
shall  contain  the  statements  which  concern  the  school.  Write  a 
second  series  in  which  the  principal  clauses  shall  chiefly  contain 
the  statements  that  concern  the  pupils. 

Compare  the  effect  of  the  two  sets  of  sentences.  ' 

11.  Study  the  sentences  in  the  following  paragraph.  Observe 
the  variety  in  structure.  Do  you  find  examples  of  loose  sentences  ? 
periodic  ? 

The  little  army  was  formed  into  three  divisions,  of  which  the 
centre,  or  ‘‘battle,’’  as  it  was  called,  was  led  by  the  general. 
The  suburbs  were  thronged  with  a countless  multitude  of  the 
natives,  who  had  flocked  from  the  city  and  surrounding  country 
to  witness  the  showy,  and,  to  them,  startling  pageant.  All  looked 
with  eager  curiosity  on  the  strangers,  the  fame  of  whose  terrible 
exploits  had  spread  to  the  remotest  parts  of  the  empire.  They 
gazed  with  astonishment  on  their  dazzling  arms  and  fair  complex- 
ions, which  seemed  to  proclaim  them  the  true  Children  of  the 
Sun  ; and  they  listened  with  feelings  of  mysterious  dread,  as 
the  trumpet  sent  forth  its  prolonged  notes  through  the  streets  of 
the  capital,  and  the  solid  ground  shook  under  the  heavy  tramp 
of  the  cavalry.  — Prescott. 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS. 


303 


. SECTION  222. 

V 

CHOICE  OF  WORDS. 

When  all  is  said  and  done,  it  is  the  choice  and  use  of  words 
that  determines  whether  or  not  we  succeed  in  express- 
ing our  thoughts  and  feelings  clearly  and  adequately. 
Good  paragraphing  makes  our  writing  easy  to  follow, 
and  variety  of  sentences  is  indispensable  when  we  get 
beyond  the  very  simplest  ideas ; but,  unless  we  choose 
our  words  skilfully  and  use  them  accurately,  we  cannot 
explain  any  subject,  no  matter  how  well  we  understand 
it,  nor  can  we  convey  to  our  readers  our  impressions 
about  what  interests  us,  however  vivid  they  may  be  in 
our  own  minds.  For  composition,  in  the  last  analysis, 
is  a matter  of  words. 

The  larger  our  vocabulary  is,  the  more  likely  we  are 
to  succeed  in  expressing  ourselves  adequately.  We 
have  seen  that  the  stream  of  thoughts  and  sensations 
that  is  always  passing  through  our  minds  is  extremely 
complex  and  that  it  shifts  and  changes  incessantly 
(p.  276).  If  you  watch  this  ‘‘stream  of  consciousness,” 
and  notice  how  rapidly  one  idea  slips  over  into  another, 
or  combines  with  it  to  form  a third  which  is  different  from 
either,  you  will  wonder  that  even  the  largest  dictionary 
can  hold  words  enough  to  express  such  an  unending 
variety  of  conceptions. 

In  itself,  however,  a word  is  merely  a conventional 
group  of  sounds,  and  in  writing  it  is  symbolized  by  a 
conventional  group  of  peculiarly  shaped  marks.  There 
is  no  essential  connection,  in  the  nature  of  things, 
between  the  word  and  the  object  which  it  signifies; 


304 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


horse  is  no  better  name  for  the  animal  in  question  than 
the  Latin  equus^  the  French  cheval^  the  German  Pferd^ 
or  the  Spanish  cahallo.  It  is  only  the  general  agree- 
ment of  those  who  speak  and  write  the  language  that 
gives  to  the  particular  combination  of  sounds  its  defi- 
nite meaning,  or  to  the  particular  combination  of  marks 
its  power  to  represent  the  sounds. 

If,  therefore,  we  are  to  use  words  in  such  a way  as 
will  convey  to  other  people  our  own  thoughts  and 
feelings,  we  must  conform  to  that  general  usage  which 
settles  the  force  and  meaning  of  every  word  in  the 
language. 


SECTION  223. 

THE  STANDARD  OF  USAGE. 

Usage  governs  language.  There  is  no  other  standard. 
By  usage,  however,  is  meant  the  practice  of  the  best  writers 
and  speakers,  not  merely  the  habits  of  the  community  in 
which  we  chance  to  live. 

This  requirement  of  conformity  to  good  usage  is  not  an 
arbitrary  law,  imposed  upon  us  by  some  power  from 
without.  We  speak  and  write  in  order  to  be  under- 
stood ; and  it  is  only  common  sense  to  employ  such 
words  as  are  in  general  use,  and  to  employ  them  in 
the  meanings  that  are  habitually  assigned  to  them  by 
educated  persons.  If  we  neglect  this  principle,  we 
may  defeat  our  purpose  in  writing;  for  only  by  fol- 
lowing it  can  we  make  sure  that  the  reader  will  gather 
from  our  words  the  thoughts  that  we  intend  them  to 
convey. 


MODERN  USAGE. 


305 


Moreover,  disregard  of  good  usage  will  expose  us  to 
the  suspicion  of  illiteracy.  To  speak  and  write  correctly  is 
the  most  generally  recognized  test  of  education.  No 
matter  how  cultivated  a man  is,  if  he  expresses  himself  in 
a way  that  most  people  regard  as  slovenly  and  inaccurate, 
he  will  be  set  down  as  deficient  in  elementary  knowl- 
edge ; and  this  judgment  will  be  passed  upon  him  not 
only  by  all  educated  people,  but  by  others  as  well.  As 
in  conduct,  so  in  language,  many  persons  who  are  care- 
less themselves,  are  quick  to  detect  and  condemn  the 
slips  of  their  associates. 

Finally,  English  is  what  is  called  a literary  language, 
— that  is,  it  has  been  used  for  centuries  in  the  expres- 
sion of  thought  by  a long  line  of  writers  of  genius  and 
culture.  This  great  body  of  literature,  together  with 
the  language  in  which  it  is  expressed,  is  our  inheritance, 
and,  like  every  inheritance,  it  imposes  a duty  as  well  as 
confers  a privilege.  It  is  not  merely  our  language  that 
we  speak ; it  is  the  language  of  Shakspere  and  Milton 
and  Burke  and  Webster.  We  may  use  it  freely,  for  it 
is  our  own ; but  we  should  not  use  it  unworthily. 

SECTION  224. 

MODERN  USAGE. 

Language  is  constantly  changing.  Yet  it  changes  so 
gradually  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  fixed  for  the  life- 
time of  any  one  writer.  The  usage  to  which  we  must 
conform,  therefore,  is  that  of  our  own  time.  We  cannot 
justify  a violation  of  modern  usage  by  quoting  Shakspere, 
any  more  than  Shakspere,  if  he  had  infringed  on  the 


306 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


usage  of  his  day,  could  have  defended  himself  by  quot- 
ing Chaucer. 

Plainly,  therefore,  our  standard  of  expression  must  be 
the  practice  of  good  writers  and  speakers  of  the  present  day. 

One  further  caution  is  necessary.  No  writer,  how- 
ever eminent,  is  free  from  faults.  Even  Homer,”  says 
the  proverb,  ‘‘  is  now  and  then  caught  napping.”  Besides, 
a great  author  may  take  liberties  with  his  mother  tongue 
which  we  cannot  venture  to  imitate.  The  mere  fact 
that  a word  or  a meaning  occurs  in  one  or  two  good 
writers  is  not  enough  to  justify  us  in  adopting  it.  The 
usage  which  we  follow  should  be  general,  not  peculiar. 

For  convenience,  we  may  sum  up  our  practical  stand- 
ard of  linguistic  correctness  in  a single  sentence : — 

Good  use  is  the  general  practice  of  reputable  writers  of  the 
present  day. 

There  are,  of  course,  varieties  of  usage,  even  among 
good  authors,  so  that  it  is  not  always  possible  to  pro- 
nounce one  of  two  words  or  meanings  correct  and  the 
other  incorrect.  In  some  cases,  too,  there  is  room  for  a 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  admissibility  of  a particu- 
lar expression.  But  in  a language  like  English,  which 
has  been  written  and  studied  for  so  many  centuries,  all 
the  main  facts  and  principles  are  settled.  Disputes 
about  this  or  that  detail  do  not  affect  the  general  uni- 
formity of  the  standard.! 

In  cases  of  doubt,  the  wise  course  for  the  young 
writer  is  plain : he  will  naturally  prefer,  in  language,  as 
in  manners  or  morals,  to  be  on  the  safe  side.  If,  as  he 
gains  experience,  he  discovers  that  he  has  imposed 

1 Compare  what  is  said  of  grammatical  principles  in  “ The  Mother 
Tongue,”  Book  II,  p.  xvi. 


WORDS  NOT  IN  GOOD  USE. 


307 


unreasonable  restrictions  on  his  liberty  of  choice,  he 
can  easily  revise  his  standards  in  the  direction  of 
greater  freedom.  It  is  harder  to  reform  bad  habits  than 
to  improve  good  ones. 


The  facts  of  good  usage  are  to  be  learned  only  from  an  extensive  and 
intimate  acquaintance  with  literature.  Grammars,  dictionaries,  and 
rhetorics  do  not  establish  the  standard;  they  are  authoritative  in  so  far 
only  as  they  correctly  record  the  results  of  a study  of  the  best  writers. 
The  oral  testimony  of  a man  of  learning  may  be  of  more  value,  in  a matter 
of  detail  to  which  he  has  given  special  attention,  than  the  printed  say-so  of 
forty  grammars  and  a dozen  rhetorics.  The  student  must  of  course  depend 
for  the  most  part  on  his  text-books  and  on  works  of  reference;  but  he 
should  remember  that  a person  who  is  not  an  authority  does  not  become  so 
by  printing  his  opinions  in  a book. 


SECTION  225. 

WORDS  NOT  IN  GOOD  USE. 

Every  language  contains  a large  stock  of  words  that  are 
not  in  good  prose  use.^  Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
archaisms  (or  obsolete  words),  pompous  or  “big”  words 
which  have  never  become  current,  foreign  words  not  yet 
naturalized,  technical  terms  appropriate  only  in  special 
treatises,  colloquialisms  improper  in  serious  writing,  pro- 
vincialisms or  dialect  words,  and  slang. 

Archaisms  are  common  in  poetry,  and  the  same  is  true 
of  maw  other  words  that  would  be  pompous  or  affected 
in  prjfee  (p.  308).  Colloquialisms  are  proper  enough  in 
ordinary  conversation  (see  p.  310)  and  technical  words  in 
technical  writing  (see  p.  326).  Foreign  words,  provin- 
cialisms, and  slang  require  particular  discussion. 

/• 


1 That  is,  in  good  use  as  defined  in  Section  224. 


308 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  226. 

POETICAL  LANGUAGE. 

The  language  of  poetry  differs  greatly  from  that  of 
prose.  In  particular,  it  ;uakes  use  of  archaic  (that  is, 
old)  forms,  words,  and  phrases,  and  it  abounds  in  unusual 
terms  and  in  figures  of  speech.  It  is  also  freer  than  prose 
in  changing  the  usual  order  of  words,  whether  for 
emphasis  or  for  some  special  poetic  effect. 

Read  the  poetical  selections  in  this  book  ^ and  note 
the  words,  phrases,  and  constructions  which  you  would 
not  expect  to  find  in  ordinary  prose. 

A young  writer  should  be  careful  not  to  imitate  the 
peculiarities  of  poetry  in  his  prose  compositions.  The 
style  should  be  appropriate  to  the  matter  and  the  occa- 
sion. Excessively  florid  or  flowery  ” diction  is  a 
common  fault  of  young  and  ambitious  authors. 


SECTION  227. 

FOREIGN  WORDS. 

English  has  borrowed  extensively  from  foreign  lan- 
guages, often  with  no  change  in  the  word.^ 

Thus,  for  example,  we  have  from  the  Latin,  cancer,  circus, 
inertia,  stupor,  squalor,  rebus,  innuendo,  er'rata,  inm,  gladiolus,  simile, 
stamen,  folio,  administrator;  from  the  Greek,  acme,  atlas,  pathos, 
chaos,  aster  crisis,  lexicon,  skeleton,  phlox ; from  the  French,  belle, 

^ See  especially  the  Appendix  on  Prosody. 

2 Except  sometimes  in  pronunciation. 


FOREIGN  WORDS. 


309 


chandelier,  dame,  police,  figure,  nature,  - prestige,  grace,  jargon, 
glacier,  role,  mauve  ; from  the  Italian,  canto,  dilettante,  lava,  maca- 
roni, villa,  piano,  loggia,  piazza,  fiasco ; from  the  Spanish,  mosquito, 
negro,  merino,  canon,  siesta;  from  the  German,  gneiss,  landau, 
meerschaum,  zinc. 

All  these  words,  and  countless  others,  though  of 
foreign  origin,  have  become  so  naturalized  that  they 
are  as  good  English  as  if  they  had  been  members  of  our 
linguistic  community  ever  since  the  days  of  King  Alfred. 
Hospitality  to  foreign  words  is  one  of  the  fixed  habits 
of  our  language,  and  new  terms  are  constantly  applying 
for  admission. 

Yet  it  is  manifestly  unwise  to  interlard  our  English 
writing  with  words  and  phrases  that  are  still  felt  as 
foreign.  For,  in  the  first  place,  such  terms  may  be 
unintelligible  to  our  readers,  and,  in  the  second  place, 
their  extensive  use  is  an  affectation,  like  ‘‘putting  on 
airs”  in  company. 

When  we  are  tempted  to  employ  a French  or  a Latin 
word  or  phrase  that  has  not  yet  become  an  accepted 
part  of  the  English  vocabulary,  we  should  ask  ourselves 
if  there  is  not  some  English  expression  (native  or 
naturalized)  that  will  answer.  Commonly,  we  shall  find 
such  an  expression  if  we  look  for  it ; but,  if  our  language 
furnishes  no  satisfactory  equivalent,  we  may  be  forced 
to  use  the  foreign  term. 


A foreign  word  wliicli  has  not  yet  been  admitted  into  the  English 
vocabulary  is  sometimes  called  a barbarism.  The  term  is  convenient,  hut 
not  very  appropriate.  It  is  of  little  utility  to  set  up  the  dogma  that  “ bar- 
barisms are  bad  English.”  Their  continual  use  is  to  be  avoided,  not 
because  they  are  bad  English,  but  because  they  savor  of  affectation  and 
may  not  be  generally  understood. 


310 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  228. 

COLLOQUIAL  LANGUAGE  AND  SLANG. 

The  language  that  we  write  will  always  differ  some- 
what from  the  language  that  we  speak.  Colloquial  English 
(that  is,  the  language  of  ordinary  conversation)  admits 
niany  words,  phrases,  forms,  and  constructions  which 
would  be  out  of  place  in  serious  composition.^ 

The  distinction  is  important,  though  frequently  over- 
looked in  estimating  the  correctness  of  a word  or  phrase. 
Written  language  is  expected  to  be  more  careful  and 
exact  than  spoken  language.  The  requirement  is  only 
reasonable.  When  we  talk,  the  expression  of  our 
thoughts  is  aided  by  gesture,  by  stress  or  emphasis  of 
the  voice,  and  by  oral  inflections  or  modulations^;  in 
writing,  we  have  none  of  these  at  our  command. 

Moreover,  when  we  converse  with  anybody,  he  forms 
his  opinion  of  us  not  only  from  what  we  say,  but  also 
from  our  appearance,  our  manners,  and  the  quality  of 
our  voices.  He  is  therefore  less  likely  than  a reader  to 
misjudge  us  or  to  misinterpret  our  words. 

Hence,  though  conversational  language  should  not 
be  slangy  or  slipshod,  it  may  properly  enough  take 
liberties  that  written  composition  must  avoid. 

Slang,  from  its  very  nature,  can  never  be  in  good  use. 
Whenever  a slang  term  becomes  reputable,  it  ceases  to 
be  slang.  Moh^  banter^  hoax^  bore  (in  the  sense  of  to 
weary)^  gerrymander  were  once  slang  terms,  but  have 

1 Compare  “ The  Mother  Tongue,”  Book  II,  p.  xxii. 

2 For  some  of  the  means  which  writers  use  to  reproduce  these  effects, 
see  pp.  57-59,  279-81,  287,  290-4,  299. 


COLLOQUIAL  LANGUAGE  AND  SLANG.  311 


worked  their  way  first  into  the  colloquial  vocabulary 
and  then  into  the  language  of  books.  Most  slang, 
however,  has  no  such  good  fortune. 

The  reasons  for  avoiding  slang  are  plain  enough.  In 
the  first  place,  slang  changes  with  great  rapidity,  both 
in  its  words  and  in  the  meanings  they  bear.  It  is  too 
unstable  and  evanescent  to  serve  the  purposes  of  record- 
ing one’s  thoughts. 

Secondly,  the  habitual  use  of  a slang  word  starves 
out  a number  of  nicely  discriminated  synonyms.  If  we 
call  everything  that  we  like  stunning^  — from  a good 
dinner  to  a fine  poem,  — we  ignore  a multitude  of  far 
more  expressive  adjectives  which  would  indicate  with 
precision  our  thought  or  feeling  in  a great  variety  of 
circumstances.  Slang  words  are  seldom  specific ; they 
are  the  lazy  man’s  substitute  for  the  mental  exertion 
involved  in  thinking  up  the  terms  that  really  express 
his  thought.  Hence  their  use  tends  to  weaken  our  power 
of  discrimination  and  to  enervate  our  minds. 

Finally,  almost  all  slang  is  vulgar,  — either  in  its 
origin  or  in  its  associations.  Its  habitual  use  is  taken 
as  a sign  of  low  breeding  or  of  affected  rowdiness.  This 
is  in  itself  a sufficient  reason  for  avoiding  it. 

Provincialisms  and  dialect  words  should  not  be  confused 
with  slang.  They  are  not  the  idle  and  fantastic  coinages 
of  the  moment,  but,  in  most  cases,  old  words  or  mean- 
ings that  have  either  gone  out  of  use  except  in  a limited 
district  or  have  never  come  into  general  use.  They 
differ  greatly  in  respectability,  some  of  them  being  well 
established  in  colloquial  speech  while  others  are  seldom 
heard  from  educated  people.  The  reason  for  avoiding 
them  is  that  they  are  not  universally  intelligible. 


312 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


Examples  of  provincial  or  dialect  words  are  the  following : — 
calaboose^  ruination,  pernickety,  sunup ; guess,  expect,  calculate, 
reckon,  and  allow  in  the  sense  of  think  or  suppose;  right  smart; 
clever  for  good-natured ; tell  him  good-bye  for  hid  him  good- 
bye ” ; raised  for  reared  (of  persons) ; red  up  for  clear  up  ; 'tarnal 
for  very  great ; ridiculous  for  ahominahle  or  outrageous ; all  over  for 
everywhere ; some  place  for  somewhere ; ‘‘  I am  through  ” for  “ I have 
finished  ’’ ; do  he  for  he  ; tuckered  for  tired  out ; “ some  pretty  ” for 
‘‘  somewhat  pretty  ’’ ; pie  plant  for  rliuharh ; spider  for  frying  pan.^ 


SECTION  229. 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  CHOICE. 

Within  the  limits  of  good  usage,  and  in  every  case 
controlled  by  it,  there  are  four  great  principles  which 
should  guide  us  in  the  choice  of  words,  — correctness, 
precision,  appropriateness,  and  expressiveness. 

Correctness  is  the  most  elementary  of  all  requirements. 
The  meanings  of  words  are  settled  by  usage.  If  we 
use  a word  incorrectly,  — that  is,  in  a sense  which  does 
not  customarily  belong  to  it,  — our  readers  will  miss  our 
thought,  or,  at  best,  they  must  arrive  at  it  by  inference 
or  guesswork. 

In  the  second  place,  we  must  fit  our  words  as  exactly 
and  precisely  as  possible  to  the  thoughts  which  we  wish 
to  express.  We  may  write  correctly  enough  and  still, 
by  neglecting  precision,  so  blur  or  obscure  our  meaning 
by  vague  or  ambiguous  language  as  to  leave  the  reader 
with  a very  indistinct  impression  of  the  thought  that 
we  desire  to  convey. 


1 For  the  use  of  dialect  in  stories,  see  p.  138. 


GENERAL  PRINCIFLES  OF  CHOICE. 


313 


In  the  third  place,  our  words  must  be  appropriate  to  the 
subject  and  the  occasion.  Otherwise,  no  matter  how  cor- 
rect they  are,  or  how  precisely  we  fit  them  to  our  mean- 
ing, they  will  fail  to  produce  the  effect  that  we  intend. 

Finally,  our  words  must  be  expressive.  They  may  be 
correctly  used,  they  may  set  forth  our  meaning  pre- 
cisely, they  may  be  appropriate  to  the  occasion ; and 
yet,  after  all,  they  may  be  so  dull  and  lifeless  as  to 
leave  the  reader  uninterested  and  unmoved.  If  words 
are  really  to  serve  our  purpose,  they  must  express  the 
color  and  vividness  of  our  feelings  about  the  subject 
that  we  are  treating. 

W e shall  study  these  four  principles  — correctness,  pre- 
cision, appropriateness,  and  expressiveness  — in  the  sections 
that  follow.  Meantime,  a few  concrete  examples  will 
make  their  bearing  evident. 

1.  Correctness.  — • A man’s  vocation  is  his  calling,”  his  ‘‘  occu- 
pation ” ; his  avocation^  on  the  contrary,  is  that  which  calls  him 
away  from  his  regular  business,”  as  music  in  the  case  of  a lawyer, 
or  baseball  in  the  case  of  a college  student.  It  is  correct,  then, 
to  say:  The  business  of  his  life  is  politics;  he  makes  literature 
an  avocation.^'  If,  now,  we  use  avocation  for  vocation,  we  violate 
the  principle  of  correctness,  and  run  the  risk  of  being  understood 
in  a sense  that  is  directly  opposite  to  what  we  intend  to  say.^ 

2.  Precision.  — Suppose  we  wish  to  set  forth  the  thought 
Shakspere  is  a great  poet,''  and,  through  carelessness,  say  merely 

“ Shakspere  is  a great  writer."  We  have  violated  no  principle  of 
correctness ; what  we  say  is  good  English  and  in  every  way 
unassailable  in  itself.  Yet  it  does  not  express  with  precision  the 
idea  that  was  in  our  mind. 

1 The  use  of  avocation  for  vocation  is  gaining  ground,  hut  good  writers 
commonly  avoid  it.  In  the  plural,  however,  avocations  has  established 
itself  in  the  sense  of  “regular  and  habitual  pursuits.” 


314 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


3.  Appropriateness.  — Suppose  you  wished  to  tell  a child  what 
he  would  like  in  Alice  in  Wonderland. You  would  not  think 
of  remarking  that  he  would  find  it  an  entertaining  volume  ” or 

replete  with  humor. So,  on  the  other  hand,  if  you  were  writ- 
ing an  essay  on  “ Books  that  I have  Enjoyed,”  for  graduation  day 
at  your  school,  you  would  not  say  that  ‘‘Alice  in  Wonderland” 
is  “very  funny.”  All  the  words  in  question  are  correctly  and 
precisely  used ; yet  they  would,  in  each  case,  be  inappropriate  to 
the  occasion  and  the  audience,  and  hence  they  would  distort  the 
effect  that  you  intended  to  produce. 

4.  Expressiveness.  — We  must  consider  not  only  whether  a word 
is  adapted  to  convey  our  precise  meaning  to  a definite  audience 
on  a particular  occasion,  but  also  whether  it  expresses  our  feelings 
about  the  subject.  Compare  “I  wished  to  find  my  father”  with 
“ I could  not  rest  till  I found  him.”  The  former  sentence  is  good 
English  in  every  respect,  but  it  is  too  cool  and  colorless  to  suggest 
the  eager  excitement  of  an  anxious  search. 

In  studying  the  four  great  principles  of  choice,  we  observe 
that  only  the  first  involves  the  question  of  right  and 
wrong.  The  others  deal  with  questions  of  discrimination 
between  better  and  worse,  — that  is,  with  the  closer 
adaptation  of  words  to  the  thoughts  and  feelings  which  we 
undertake  to  express. 

Further,  it  is  only  in  dealing  with  the  first  principle 
(correctness)  that  we  can  keep  our  attention  entirely  on 
the  single  word.  A vague  noun  may  be  made  precise 
by  means  of  an  adjective ; the  tone  of  the  whole  com- 
position determines  the  appropriateness  of  each  word 
that  it  contains ; the  expressiveness  of  a phrase  is  often 
different  from  the  sum  of  the  expressiveness  of  the 
single  words  that  compose  it. 

Clearly,  then,  correctness  stands  on  a different  footing 
from  the  other  three  principles  of  choice. 


CORRECTNESS. 


315 


SECTION  230. 

CORRECTNESS. 

As  soon  as  we  begin  to  study  the  principle  of  correct- 
ness in  the  use  of  words,  we  notice  that  there  is  one  class 
of  words  which  we  are  in  little  danger  of  misemploy- 
ing. Every  one  knows  what  such  terms  as  hread^  cTiair^ 
awkward^  quicks  hark^  jump^  telephone  mean,  and  can 
use  them  accurately.  These  specific  terms,  if  only  we  are 
familiar  with  the  subject  they  concern,  need  no  definition. 

Contrasted  with  specific  words  are  such  general  terms 
as  science^  intellect^  revolution^  literature^  temperance^ 
affectation^  propriety.  These  differ  from  the  specific 
words  in  being  far  less  definitely  limited  in  their  appli- 
cation. Indeed,  the  varieties  of  meaning  which  each 
of  them  covers  are  so  great  that  every  speaker  may 
almost  be  said  to  use  them  in  a somewhat  different 
sense. 

Compare,  for  example,  the  specific  term  hook  with  the  general 
term  literature.  ‘‘  He  held  a hook  in  his  hand  ” calls  up  a clear 
picture  in  the  mind.  There  is  no  danger  of  our  misunderstand- 
ing the  word  or  misusing  it.  Literature^  on  the  contrary,  is  an 
elastic  term.  Its  meaning  varies  with  the  person  and  the  circum- 
stances. To  one  it  suggests  only  such  works  as  have  an  estab- 
lished reputation  for  artistic  form ; by  another  it  is  stretched  to 
cover  the  transient  harvest  of  the  bookstalls ; a third  rejects  the 
trashy  novel  but  admits  a well-written  work  of  science  ; a fourth 
regards  science  and  literature  as  mutually  exclusive.  Scott's 
Ivanhoe,”  Bacon’s  ‘‘  Essays,”  Stanley’s  ‘‘  In  Darkest  Africa,” 
Darwin’s  ‘‘Voyage  of  the  Beagle,”  Winsor’s  “ History  of  America,” 
Whately’s  “ Logic,”  Bryce’s  “ American  Commonwealth,”  and 
Dr.  Doyle’s  “ Hound  of  the  Baskervilles  ” are  all  hooks,  — nobody 


316 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


can  dispute  that ; but  how  many  of  them  belong  to  literature  ? 
To  this  question  a hundred  different  persons  might  give  a hun- 
dred different  answers. 

Consider  how  men’s  opinions  differ  as  to  the  honesty  of  a par- 
ticular transaction,  the  propriety  of  this  or  that  line  of  conduct, 
the  wit  or  wisdom  of  some  remark  that  they  hear  or  read.  Half 
our  lives  is  spent  in  balancing  and  discussing  the  applicability 
of  such  general  terms  to  specific  acts  or  objects. 

Obviously,  then,  there  is  ample  opportunity  for  error 
in  the  use  of  general  words,  since  it  is  so  difficult  to  fix 
the  bounds  of  their  correct  use.  Such  error  may  con- 
sist either  in  stretching  their  sense  beyond  what  good 
usage  has  prescribed,  or  in  limiting  it  too  rigidly  in 
accordance  with  some  prejudice  or  pedantic  whim. 

Attention,  knowledge  of  good  literature,  and  clear 
thinking  are  requisite  if  we  are  to  avoid  the  pitfalls 
that  beset  the  use  of  general  terms.  Such  terms  are 
necessary  in  the  expression  of  thought.  Inaccuracy  in 
their  employment,  however,  is  fatal  to  perspicuity  and 
debilitating  to  the  mind. 

SECTION  231. 

TECHNICAL  TERMS. 

Every  special  subject  or  department  of  study  — as 
law,  medicine,  carpentry,  engineering,  or  rhetoric  — has 
its  own  vocabulary  of  technical  terms.  Within  the  limits 
of  the  subject  in  question,  every  such  term  has  a rigidly 
defined  sense,  which  cannot  be  disregarded  without  a 
gross  violation  of  correctness.  Many  of  these  terms, 
however,  get  into  everyday  use,  and  these  are  sure  to 
lose  some  of  their  technical  accuracy.  Sometimes  this 


TECHNICAL  TERMS. 


317 


vaguer  or  less  scientific  use  becomes  established  in  the 
language ; sometimes  it  does  not.  Here,  as  everywhere 
else,  there  is  no  standard  but  good  usage. 

Thus  federal,  in  constitutional  law,  distinguishes  the  powers 
and  attributes  of  a common  government  that  is  established  by  a 
union  or  federation  of  states.  In  common  parlance,  however,  it 
may  signify  ‘‘pertaining  to  the  United  States.”  Both  meanings 
are  correct,  for  both  are  sanctioned  by  good  usage ; we  should  be 
careful  not  to  confuse  the  two  or  to  employ  one  of  them  in  a con- 
text that  suggests  or  demands  the  other. 

Again,  intellectual,  in  psychology,  distinguishes  the  thinking  or 
reasoning  faculties  of  the  mind  from  the  senses,  emotions,  and 
instincts.  In  ordinary  language,  however,  it  is  sometimes  care- 
lessly used  as  a synonym  for  learned.  This  looser  sense  has  some 
authority,  but,  if  not  positively  incorrect,  is  generally  avoided  by 
discriminating  writers. 

Other  examples  of  technical  words  and  phrases  that  have 
become  more  or  less  popular  and  require  especial  care  for  their 
accurate  use  are  evolution,  survival  of  the  fittest,  original  sin,  total 
depravity,  unearned  increment,  metaphysical,  psychology,  critical, 
demur,  estop,  eliminate,  hypothecate,  trust  (in  the  commercial  sense), 
currency,  philology,  democratic,  aristocracy,  handicap,  microbe,  verdict, 
plead,  melody,  sociology,  vivisection,  clarify,  fallacy,  sophistry, 
syllogism,  logical,  organic,  affiliate,  degenerate,  dynamic,  entail. 

To  use  such  words  correctly  in  their  wider  application, 
we  must  know  something  of  their  original  and  technical 
meaning.  Otherwise  we  may  employ  them  so  errone- 
ously or  incongruously  as  to  obscure  our  thought  instead 
of  illuminating  it. 

In  law,  a man  is  said  to  be  estopped  from  a declaration  or  act 
when  some  former  act  or  statement  of  his  own  is  inconsistent  with 
it.  Therefore  to  say,  “ The  mayor  estopped  the  aldermen  from 
acting,”  is  incorrect  and  absurd.  On  the  other  hand,  it  would  be 


318 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


proper  to  say  that  the  action  of  the  aldermen  last  February 
estops  them  from  proceeding  with  their  present  plan.” 

To  THE  Teacher.  — The  distinction  between  specific  and  general 
words  should  not  be  pushed  too  far.  It  may  be  worth  while  to  point  out  to 
the  pupils  that  a word  like  man  is  specific  as  compared  with  animal^  but 
general  as  compared  with  a proper  noun  like  Washington.  The  ordinary 
rhetorical  sense  of  specific  and  general  is  far  less  exact  than  the  logical  or 
philosophical  use.  In  rhetoric,  specific  is  almost  synonymous  with  concrete^ 
and  general  or  collective  often  nearly  coterminous  with  abstract.  In  like 
manner,  we  must  not  insist  too  strictly  on  the  technical  meanings  of  words 
drawn  from  the  sciences.  Such  a word,  as  we  have  seen,  often  establishes 
itself  in  good  usage  in  a new  or  more  extended  signification. 


SECTION  232. 

PRECISION. 

The  principle  of  precision  (p.  313)  guides  us  in  fitting 
our  words  definitely  and  exactly  to  the  thought  that  we 
wish  to  express.  Here  we  are  no  longer  dealing  with 
questions  of  right  and  wrong  in  language,  but  rather 
with  matters  of  expediency.  We  must  ask  ourselves 
not  merely,  ‘‘  Is  the  word  good  English  ? ” but  ‘‘  Does 
it  precisely  express  the  thought  that  I have  in  mind  ? ” 

Regard  for  precision  often  requires  the  use  of  a 
specific  rather  than  a general  word. 

If  we  say  animal  when  we  mean  dog,  or  tree  when  we  mean  elm, 
or  use  picture  for  portrait,  savage  for  Indian,  apple  for  greening,  Jisli 
for  trout,  disagreeable  for  ill-tempered,  building  for  statehouse,  we  are 
violating  the  principle  of  precision. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  our  thought  is  general,  — as  of 
course  it  often  must  be,  — a general  word  expresses  our 
meaning  more  precisely  than  a specific  word. 


PRECISION. 


319 


So,  if  we  mean  animal,  or  tree,  or  picture,  or  savage,  or  apple, 
rather  than  dog,  or  elm,  or  portrait,  or  Indian,  or  greening,  — that 
is,  if  we  really  wish  to  express  a general  rather  than  a specific 
idea,  — precision  requires  that  we  should  use  the  general  word. 
Similarly,  legislature  is  less  specific  than  the  Senate  and  the  House 
of  Representatives  or  the  Lords  and  Commons,  But  if  we  say, 
‘‘A  legislature  is  ill-adapted  to  executive  functions,”  legislature 
expresses  our  meaning  with  entire  precision. 

Indeed,  there  are  many  words  and  phrases  whose  virtue 
consists  in  their  large  inclusiveness.  Existence,,  super- 
natural, the  nature  of  things,  knowledge  of  the  universe,  the 
eternal  verities  are  the  precise  expressions  of  certain 
comprehensive  ideas  which  no  specific  terms  can  denote. 

For  most  of  us,  however,  there  is  more  danger  of 
using  a general  term  where  a specific  word  would  serve 
the  purpose  better,  than  of  using  a specific  for  a gen- 
eral word. 

The  word  move  will  fill  the  grammatical  place  of  hop,  run,  walk, 
slide,  jolt,  sprawl,  and  a host  of  other  verbs.  If  our  thought  is 
sluggish  or  sleepy,  it  is  easier  to  use  the  general  word  move  than 
to  call  up  the  specific  word  which  adds  to  the  general  idea  the 
precise  idea  of  the  particular  kind  of  motion  meant. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — One  of  the  commonest  of  rhetorical  faults  is  the 
expression  (or  half-expression)  of  specific  ideas  in  general  terms.  The 
teacher,  therefore,  is  constantly  obliged  to  change  a general  word  to  a 
specific  in  correcting  the  pupils’  essays,  and  must  emphasize  incessantly  the 
advantages  of  specific  language.  Hence  beginners  sometimes  get  the  odd 
notion  that  specific  words  are  in  themselves  better  than  general  words,  and 
are  therefore  always  to  be  preferred.  This  misapprehension  confuses  them 
extremely,  since  every  page  that  they  read  and  every  conversation  that 
they  hear  illustrates  its  falsity.  Particular  pains  should  therefore  be 
taken  to  make  the  true  principle  clear  and  to  point  out  its  practical  appli- 
cation. The  precise  word  or  phrase  is  the  word  or  phrase  which  expresses 
the  exact  idea  precisely ; it  will  be  specific  or  general  according  as  the 
idea  itself  is  specific  or  general. 


320 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  233. 

AIDS  TO  PRECISION. 

It  is  a great  help  to  the  exact  understanding  and  the 
precise  use  of  words  to  know  their  derivation.  Many  of 
our  general  words  come  from  the  Latin,  and  in  such 
cases  the  Latin  meaning  is  often  more  concrete  or  more 
picturesque  than  the  English.  Almost  all  English  and 
American  writers  of  distinction  have  had  some  acquaint- 
ance with  Latin,  and  have  used  these  borrowed  terms 
with  a keen  sense  of  their  original  meaning.  Such  a 
feeling  for  derivation  is  a distinct  aid  to  precision. 

Determine  means  literally  “ to  mark  off  the  boundaries  (com- 
pare terminus')  ; prospect,  ‘‘  a look  ahead  ” ; satisfaction,  doing 
enough’’;  doctrine,  ‘‘teaching”;  eradicate,  “to  root  out”;  deter, 
“ to  frighten  away  ” ; apprehend,  “ to  catch  hold  of  ” ; magnanimous, 
“ great-souled  ” ; complicated,  “folded  together”;  introduce,  “to 
lead  in”;  diffuse,  “poured  apart,”  “scattered.” 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  most  of  these 
borrowed  words  have  changed  their  signification  more 
or  less  in  English.  We  must  therefore  take  care  not 
to  make  our  style  fantastic  or  unintelligible  by  adhering 
too  closely  to  the  Latin  meaning. 


To  THE  Teacher.  — The  study  of  derivations  may  be  made  practical 
by  attaching  it  directly  to  the  correction  of  the  pupils’  essays.  If  a pupil 
uses  a word  vaguely  or  incongruously,  he  may  be  sent  to  the  Dictionary 
to  discover  its  original  sense  and  to  trace  its  development  in  English; 
but  he  should  be  warned  against  the  inference  that  the  English  meaning  is 
necessarily  settled  or  limited  by  the  Latin  signification.  Pupils  who  know 
no  Latin  are  at  a disadvantage  in  writing  English.  French,  however,  will 
be  of  some  assistance. 


AIDS  TO  PRECISION. 


321 


A number  of  words  that  illustrate  the  importance  of  etymological  study 
are  here  noted  as  examples:  — anticipate^  surreptitious^  convince^  dilapi- 
dated, secure,  ponder,  fiscal,  redound,  equivocation,  edify,  solution,  sine- 
cure, discuss,  collateral,  circumstance,  depend,  consent,  oblivion,  martial, 
insult,  reluctant,  transfix,  pretext,  abstract,  insinuate,  exposition,  explana- 
tion, repulsion,  redeem,  subtraction,  torture,  tradition,  conclusion,  innuendo, 
exaggeration,  aggravation,  obvious,  superannuated,  negative,  disturbance, 
implication,  supercilious,  encourage  (compare  dishearten),  real,  science, 
reveal  (compare  revelation),  jeopardy,  adventure,  agreeable,  engagement, 
feature.  For  a study  of  the  English  vocabulary,  with  special  reference  to 
development  of  meanings,  see  “ Words  and  their  Ways  in  English  Speech  ” 
by  J.  B.  Greenough  and  G.  L.  Kittredge. 

Precision  is  not  altogether  a matter  of  single  words. 
If  a word  is  too  general  to  express  our  exact  meaning, 
we  may  often  make  it  precise  by  means  of  a modifier. 

Thus,  <‘The  president  was  elected  for  a second  term”  may 
apply  to  any  one  of  several  presidents  of  the  United  States,  not  to 
speak  of  presidents  of  societies  and  corporations.  “ The  president 
of  the  United  States''  is  more  precise,  and  ‘‘the  first  president  of 
the  United  States”  can  refer  to  Washington  alone.  In  this  case 
we  are  dealing  with  adjective  modifiers ; but  the  same  principle 
holds  of  adverbs,  adverbial  phrases,  and  adverbial  clauses.^ 

Precision  requires  not  only  an  exact  and  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  subject  on  which  we  write,  but  the 
command  of  an  extensive  vocabulary  and  the  power  to 
discriminate  nicely  between  the  meanings  of  words.  As 
we  advance  in  experience  and  education,  we  learn  to 
distinguish  more  and  more  sharply  among  objects  and 
ideas,  and  consequently  we  feel  an  ever-increasing  need 
for  precision  in  expressing  our  thoughts.  If  our  ideas 
are  blurred  and  muddy,  we  can  get  along  without  it ; if 
they  are  clear  and  distinctly  outlined,  our  language  must 
be  precise  if  it  is  to  represent  them  accurately. 

1 Compare  “ The  Mother  Tongue,”  Book  II,  pp.  37-38. 


322 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  234. 

APPROPRIATENESS. 

The  third  great  principle  in  choosing  words  is  appro- 
priateness. Even  if  our  words  are  used  correctly  and 
express  our  meaning  with  precision,  they  will  fail  of 
their  purpose  unless  they  are  appropriate  to  the  subject,  to 
the  occasion,  and  to  the  reader’s  understanding.  If  we  ‘‘talk 
over  the  heads  of  our  hearers,”  they  will  not  listen. 
If  we  resort  to  an  affected  simplicity,  they  will  feel 
offended  or  contemptuous.  If  our  language  is  slangy, 
or  slipshod,  or  over-colloquial,  they  will  doubt  our  sin- 
cerity or  our  appreciation  of  the  subject.  We  must 
“ put  ourselves  in  the  place  ” of  our  readers,  for  this  is 
the  only  sure  guide  to  appropriateness. 

In  writing  about  simple  and  familiar  things  we  should 
use  simple  words.  We  should  not,  as  Dr.  Johnson  said, 
“ make  little  fishes  talk  like  whales.” 

Novelists  often  ridicule  the  habit  of  using  pompous  or  “big’’ 
words.  Thus  George  Eliot,  in  Middlernarch,”  makes  Mr. 
Turnbull,  the  auctioneer,  say,  “ O yes,  anybody  may  ask.  Any- 
body may  interrogate.  Any  one  may  give  their  remarks  an 
interrogative  turn.”  Mr.  Micawber  in  ‘‘  David  Copperfield  ” 
habitually  speaks  in  the  following  style  : ‘‘  My  dear  Copperfield, 
this  is  indeed  a meeting  which  is  calculated  to  impress  the  mind 
with  a sense  of  the  instability  and  uncertainty  of  all  human  — 
in  short,  it  is  a most  extraordinary  meeting.” 

The  familiar  words  in  English  are  not  all  short.  Pendulum,  contradict, 
arsenic,  elastic,  monotonous,  photographer,  consequence,  obstinate,  and 
countless  others  came  into  the  language  as  ‘‘learned  words”  from  Latin 
and  Greek,  hut  are  now  in  everyday  use.  The  progress  of  science  and  the 
spread  of  education  are  continually  familiarizing  us  v/ith  such  terms  and 
thus  enlarging  the  vocabulary  of  ordinary  life. 


APPROPRIATENESS. 


323 


Simple  language  is  well  suited  to  most  explanations, 
and  to  arguments  addressed  to  the  reason  alone.  In 
such  cases,  any  approach  to  a florid  style  seems  like 
affectation  and  may  even  suggest  insincerity. 

The  use  of  simple  words,  however,  is  not  limited  to 
the  familiar  style.  Observe  the  impressiveness  of  the 
following  passages,  — the  first  from  Ma:cbeth,”  the 
second  from  the  Book  of  Job:  — 

To-morrow,  and  to-morrow,  and  to-morrow 
Creeps  in  this  petty  pace  from  day  to  day. 

To  the  last  syllable  of  recorded  time  ; 

And  all  onr  yesterdays  have  lighted  fools 

The  way  to  dusty  death.  Out,  out,  brief  candle ! 

Life’s  blit  a walking  shadow,  a poor  player. 

That  struts  and  frets  his  hour  upon  the  stage 
And  then  is  heard  no  more ; it  is  a tale 
Told  by  an  idiot,  full  of  sound  and  fury. 

Signifying  nothing. 

In  thoughts  from  the  visions  of  the  night,  when  deep  sleep 
falleth  on  men,  fear  came  upon  me,  and  trembling,  which  made 
all  my  bones  to  shake.  Then  a spirit  passed  before  my  face ; 
the  hair  of  my  flesh  stood  up.  It  stood  still,  but  I could  not 
discern  the  form  thereof : an  image  was  before  mine  eyes ; there 
was  silence,  and  I heard  a voice,  saying : “ Shall  mortal  man  be 
more  just  than  God?  Shall  a man  be  more  pure  than  his 
maker  ? ” 

These  two  passages  contain  hardly  a word  that  is  not 
familiar  to  everybody,  and  the  simplicity  of  the  language 
enhances  their  power.  We  should  not  underestimate 
the  expressive  value  of  common  words  merely  because 
they  serve  the  ordinary  purposes  of  life. 


324 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


Simplicity  of  style,  however,  is  not  always  appro- 
priate to  the  occasion.  Read  the  following  extract  from 
W ebster’s  “ First  Oration  on  Bunker  Hill  Monument  ” : — 

This  uncounted  multitude  before  me  and  around  me  proves  the 
feeling  which  the  occasion  has  excited.  These  thousands  of 
human  faces,  glowing  with  sympathy  and  joy,  and  from  the 
impulses  of  a common  gratitude  turned  reverently  to  heaven  in 
this  spacious  temple  of  the  firmament,  proclaim  that  the  day,  the 
place,  and  the  purpose  of  our  assembling  have  made  a deep 
impression  on  our  hearts. 

If,  indeed,  there  be  anything  in  local  association  fit  to  affect 
the  mind  of  man,  we  need  not  strive  to  repress  the  emotions 
which  agitate  us  here.  We  are  among  the  sepulchres  of  our 
fathers.  We  are  on  ground  distinguished  by  their  valor,  their 
constancy,  and  the  shedding  of  their  blood.  We  are  here,  not  to 
fix  an  uncertain  date  in  our  annals,  nor  to  draw  into  notice  an 
obscure  and  unknown  spot.  If  our  humble  purpose  had  never 
been  conceived,  if  we  ourselves  had  never  been  born,  the  17th  of 
June,  1775,  would  have  been  a day  on  which  all  subsequent  his- 
tory would  have  poured  its  light,  and  the  eminence  where  we 
stand  a point  of  attraction  to  the  eyes  of  successive  generations. 
But  we  are  Americans.  We  live  in  what  may  be  called  the  early 
age  of  this  great  continent;  and  we  know  that  our  posterity, 
through  all  time,  are  here  to  enjoy  and  suffer  the  allotments  of 
humanity.  We  see  before  us  a probable  train  of  great  events; 
we  know  that  our  own  fortunes  have  been  happily  cast ; and  it  is 
natural,  therefore,  that  we  should  be  moved  by  the  contemplation 
of  occurrences  which  have  guided  our  destiny  before  many  of  us 
were  born,  and  settled  the  condition  in  which  we  shall  pass  that 
portion  of  our  existence  which  God  allows  to  men  on  earth. 

Here  the  dignity  of  a great  celebration  called  for  a 
larger  proportion  of  long  and  sonorous  words  than  would 
have  been  appropriate  on  an  ordinary  occasion. 


APPROPRIATENESS. 


325 


Such  an  opening  sentence  as  ‘‘  There  are  a great  many  of  us 
here  to-day,  all  full  of  enthusiasm,  all  eager  to  show  how  much 
we  think  of  the  day  and  the  place,’’  would  have  been  absurdly 
out  of  keeping.  Full-sounding  words  and  phrases  like  multitude^ 
reverently,  temple  of  the  firmament,  local  association  fitted  the  solem- 
nity of  the  moment.  Familiar  terms  were  inappropriate ; what 
was  needed  was  an  elevated  and  stately  vocabulary. 

The  same  principle  of  appropriateness  which  Webster 
followed  in  his  oration  should  guide  us  in  our  choice  of 
words.  In  a letter  to  an  older  person,  one  naturally 
uses  a less  familiar  style  than  in  a letter  to  a friend  of 
one’s  own  age ; and  a speech  at  graduation  calls  for  a 
still  more  dignified  vocabulary.  In  short,  we  should 
always  consider  the  occasion  and  choose  our  words  in 
accordance  with  its  demands. 


SECTION  235. 

SPECIAL  QUESTIONS  OF  APPROPRIATENESS. 

Every  art,  science,  and  craft  has  its  special  vocabulary 
of  technical  terms  which  are  unintelligible  to  most  out- 
siders (see  p.  316).  The  same  is  true  of  many  games 
and  sports. 

In  discussing  football  with  a company  of  boys,  you  can  safely 
use  such  terms  as  guard,  quarter-hack,  and  signal  in  their  special 
senses  without  explanation.  Chamfer,  dowels,  and  countersink 
are  immediately  clear  to  a carpenter ; sequelae,  septiccemia,  and 
prophylaxis  to  a physician ; trover,  tort,  and  contrihutory  negligence 
to  a lawyer  ; cold-swaged,  gudgeon,  and  hevel  gear  to  a mechanic, 
and  so  on. 


326 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


Technical  terms  are  appropriate  in  a technical  treatise 
addressed  to  a body  of  specialists  (see  p.  316),  but  they 
should  be  sparingly  used  in  ordinary  writings,  and,  when 
they  are  necessary,  should  be  carefully  defined. 

Many  such  terms,  however,  have  become  familiar 
parts  of  the  ordinary  vocabulary,  and  these  may  of 
course  be  used  freely  without  definition  or  apology. 

Such  are,  — mortgage,  attorney,  injunction,  oxygen,  chlorine,  dove- 
tail, mortise,  insulate,  dijnamo,  inoculate,  cauterize,  and  many  others. 

Archaic  words  and  forms  are  freely  used  in  poetry  (see 
p.  308).  In  prose,  however,  they  are  seldom  appropri- 
ate, except  in  conversational  passages  that  aim  to  pro- 
duce an  effect  of  antiquity.  On  the  same  principle, 
colloquialisms,  dialect  words,  slang,  and  bad  grammar  may 
often  be  found  in  dialogue.  In  all  such  cases,  the 
writer’s  purpose  is  to  make  his  characters  seem  real 
and  to  throw  light  on  their  station  or  circumstances 
(see  p.  138).  The  device  is  a good  one;  but,  when 
overworked,  it  becomes  exceedingly  tiresome. 


SECTION  236. 

EXPRESSIVENESS. 

The  fourth  principle  in  the  choice  of  words  is  expres- 
siveness. It  is  not  enough  that  our  language  should  be 
correct,  precise,  and  appropriate  to  the  subject  and  the 
occasion.  It  may  fulfil  all  these  requirements  and  still 
fail  to  move  or  interest  the  reader  because  our  words  are 
cold  and  unexpressive. 


EXPRESSIVENESS. 


327 


Repeat  the  simple  experiment  in  psychology  suggested  on 
page  276,  this  time  in  order  to  test  the  capacity  of  your  present 
stock  of  words  to  express  all  that  passes  in  your  mind.  You 
observe  not  only  that  the  stream  of  your  thought  is  a surging 
current  of  ideas,  sensations,  and  memories,  but  that  your  own 
ideas  and  feelings  must  of  necessity  be  different  from  those  of 
any  other  person.  In  your  class,  for  instance,  there  will  be,  as 
you  read  these  words,  fifteen  or  twenty  or  fifty  different  shades 
of  feeling  about  this  lesson,  about  your  teacher,  about  each  of 
the  other  fifteen  or  twenty  or  fifty  members  of  the  class.  These 
differences  may  be  slight  and  unimportant  in  themselves.  Still, 
it  is  the  sum  of  many  such  minute  differences  in  our  ways  of 
looking  at  things,  that  makes  each  one  of  us  what  he  is  as  an 
individual. 

Each  of  us,  then,  has  his  individual  feelings,  his  own 
particular  attitude  of  mind,  toward  every  subject  on 
which  he  writes.  If  he  is  interested  in  the  subject,  his 
feelings  will  be  warm  and  vigorous,  and,  in-order  to 
communicate  his  interest  to  the  reader,  he  must  let  this 
warmth  and  vigor  appear  in  his  language.  In  short,  he 
must  follow  the  principle  of  expressiveness. 

The  expresssiveness  of  a word  or  phrase  depends  not 
merely  on  what  it  actually  denotes,  but  also  on  its  asso- 
ciations and  on  what  it  suggests,  — that  is,  on  the  ideas 
and  feelings  which  it  calls  up  in  our  minds  over  and 
above  its  precise  meaning. 

Thus,  fist  means  simply  ‘‘  the  hand  with  the  fingers  doubled  up 
against  the  palm,”  but  it  suggests  a pugilistic  encounter ; scalpel 
suggests  all  that  we  know  or  have  heard  of  surgical  operations ; 
poniard  suggests  bravos  and  midnight  assassinations ; anvil  sug- 
gests some  blacksmith's  shop  with  which  we  are  familiar. 

The  associations  of  words  vary  infinitely.  Sometimes 
they  are  merely  personal,  going  back  to  a particular 


328 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


incident  or  experience.^  Sometimes,  on  the  contrary, 
they  are  common  to  all  speakers,  and  thus  have  become, 
to  all  intents  and  purposes,  a part  of  the  meaning  which 
the  words  convey. 

Home,  for  example,  is  distinguished  from  house  or  residence  by 
the  associations  of  comfort  and  affection  that  belong  to  it.  A 
moment's  thought  will  enable  you  to  recall  many  other  words  which 
suggest,  in  like  manner,  much  more  than  they  actually  denote. 

This  suggestive  power  of  words  and  phrases  must 
always  be  borne  in  mind  in  writing,  as  well  as  their 
definite  sense.  Otherwise  we  shall  run  the  risk  not 
only  of  missing  their  full  expressiveness,  but  also  of 
combining  them  incongruously. 

Expressiveness  often  depends  not  merely  on  a skilful 
choice  of  single  words,  but  also  on  their  felicitous 
combination  in  phrases  and  sentences.  Observe  the 
depth  and  intensity  of  feeling  expressed  by  the  italicized 
phrases  in  the  following  passage  from  Thackeray : — 

Remember  your  own  young  days  at  school,  my  friend  — the 
tingling  cheeks,  burning  ears,  bursting  heart,  and  pamon  of  desperate 
tears,  with  which  you  looked  up,  after  having  performed  some 
blunder,  whilst  the  Doctor  held  you  up  to  public  scorn  before  the 
class,  and  cracked  his  great  clumsy  jokes  upon  you  — helpless 
and  a prisoner  ! 

Here,  as  often,  the  expressive  force  of  the  words 
resides  in  their  combined  power  to  suggest  definite 
physical  sensations  which  form  part  of  the  ordinary 
experience  of  every  reader  (see  pp.  166-7). 

1 Every  one  can  think  of  words  for  which  he  feels  a whimsical  aver- 
sion, not  because  they  are  unpleasant  in  sound  or  meaning,  but  simply 
because  they  are  associated  in  his  mind  with  a disagreeable  experience  or 
an  uncongenial  person. 


GENERAL  AND  SPECIFIC  WORDS. 


329 


SECTION  237. 

GENERAL  AND  SPECIFIC  WORDS. 

Words  differ  greatly  in  expressiveness.  Abstract 
terms  like  quality^  essence^  elevation  are  applicable  to  so 
many  particular  cases  that  they  carry  no  individual  sug- 
gestions. A preponderance  of  such  words  make  one’s 
writing  dull  and  neutral-tinted.  More  specific  words, 
on  the  other  hand,  — like  willow^  orange^  spring^  irri- 
table^ panther^  — are  limited  in  their  application.  Con- 
sequently, they  are  surrounded  by  definite  associations,^ 
and  thus  have  the  power  to  suggest  or  connote  much 
that  they  do  not  actually  say.  Such  words,  therefore, 
are  more  vivid  and  expressive  than  general  terms.^ 

Expressiveness,  then,  is  enhanced  by  the  use  of 
specific  words,  and,  in  particular,  by  those  which  sug- 
gest action  or  feeling.  The  more  specific  a word  is, 
the  more  vivid  and  expressive  it  is  likely  to  be. 

<<  A dog  ran  out  and  barked  at  me,”  conveys  a less  vivid 
impression  than  A terrier  ran  out  and  barked  at  me.”  The 
word  terrier  instantly  calls  up  in  the  reader’s  mind  the  image  of  a 
small  dog,  with  quick,  restless  movements,  and  a sharp,  quick 
bark.  Probably,  also,  he  will  think  of  a particular  terrier  with 
which  he  is  acquainted.  Dog,  however,  calls  up  a much  vaguer 
image,  for  the  animal  may  be  anything  from  a poodle  to  a blood- 
hound. In  such  cases,  the  specific  word  terrier  includes  the  mean- 
ing of  the  general  term  and  a good  deal  besides. 

Defoe  writes  of  Robinson  Crusoe’s  first  attempts  to  make 
earthenware,  that  they  produced  ‘‘odd,  misshapen,  ugly  things.”'^ 

1 See  p.  170,  on  the  suggestive  power  of  words  of  smell. 

2 On  specific  and  general  words,  see  also  pp.  315-16,  318-19. 

3 The  vague  word  things  is  used  with  excellent  judgment,  for  the  shape  of 
the  vessels  was  so  uncertain  that  Crusoe  did  not  know  what  to  call  them. 


330 


THE  MOTHER  TO^^GUE. 


This  is  far  more  vivid  than  if  he  had  written  that  the  pottery 
was  ‘‘irregular  in  shape,”  — a phrase  which  would  have  expressed 
the  bare  fact  well  enough.  Ik  Marvel’s  description  of  Spring  in 
“ Dream  Life  ” owes  its  interest  and  effectiveness  to  its  vivid 
specific  words,  as  in  the  sentence:  “The  old  elms  throw  down 
their  dingy  flowers,  and  color  their  spray  with  green  ; and  the 
brooks  where  you  throw  your  worm  or  the  minnow,  float  down 
whole  fleets  of  the  crimson  blossoms  of  the  maple.” 


SECTION  238. 

FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 

Expressiveness  is  greatly  assisted  by  the  use  of 

figurative  language. 

Our  ordinary  talk  is  full  of  figures  of  speech.  We 
use  them  unconsciously,  obeying  the  natural  tendency 
to  compare  one  thing  with  another  that  resembles  it, 
whether  in  fact  or  in  our  imagination. 

When  you  speak  of  hammering  away  at  your  algebra,”  or  say 
that  you  have  “ just  squeezed  through  ” an  examination  in  Latin, 
or  that  a date  in  history  has  slipped  your  mind,”  you  are  using 
a figure  of  speech.  The  expressions  noted  are  manifestly  more 
vivid  than  to  say  that  you  will  “ study  hard  at  your  algebra,”  or 
that  you  have  ^^harely  passed  the  examination”  or  ^‘forgotten  the 
date.”  The  general  sense  is  the  same  in  either  case,  but  your 
language  in  the  former  instance  suggests  a livelier  and  more 
picturesque  conception  of  the  facts,  and  therefore  attracts  and 
holds  the  hearer’s  attention  more  certainly. 

The  power  of  an  author  often  shows  itself  in  noble, 
but  spontaneous,  figures  of  speech ; for  it  is  the  great 
writers  who  see  new  truths  and  deeper  relations  in  the 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 


331 


world  about  them  which  the  old  words  will  not  express. 
Read  the  following  passage  from  Bacon’s  Advance- 
ment of  Learning  ” : — 

But  the  greatest  error  of  all  the  rest  is  the  mistaking  or  mis- 
placing of  the  last  or  furthest  end  of  knowledge.  For  men  have 
entered  into  a desire  of  learning  and  knowledge,  sometimes  upon 
a natural  curiosity  and  inquisitive  appetite  ; sometimes  to  enter- 
tain their  minds  with  variety  and  delight ; sometimes  for  ornament 
and  reputation ; and  sometimes  to  enable  them  to  victory  of  wit 
and  contradiction ; and  most  times  for  lucre  and  profession  ; and 
seldom  sincerely  to  give  a true  account  of  their  gift  of  reason,  to 
the  benefit  and  use  of  men ; as  if  there  were  sought  in  knowledge 
a couch,  whereupon  to  rest  a searching  and  restless  spirit;  or  a 
terrace,  for  a wandering  and  variable  mind  to  walk  up  and  down 
with  a fair  prospect  ; or  a tower  of  state,  for  a proud  mind  to 
raise  itself  upon  ; or  a fort  or  commanding  ground,  for  strife 
and  contention  ; or  a shop,  for  profit  or  sale ; and  not  a rich  store- 
house, for  the  glory  of  the  Creator  and  the  relief  of  man’s  estate. 

Here  the  splendor  of  the  imagery  is  no  mere  embel- 
lishment. Without  it,  Bacon  could  not  have  given 
adequate  expression  to  his  enthusiastic  appreciation  of 
learning  and  his  fine  scorn  for  the  unworthy  uses  to 
which  it  is  sometimes  put.  At  the  same  time,  the 
figures  elevate  the  passage  from  the  ordinary  levels  of 
prose  to  a noble  eloquence. 

Between  such  simple,  unstudied  figures  of  speech 
as  those  cited  on  page  330  and  the  loftiest  heights  of 
poetic  imagery,  there  is  no  essential  distinction.  The 
difference,  great  as  it  is,  is  a difference  not  of  kind  but 
of  degree.  If  our  feelings  are  active,  we  unconsciously 
enliven  their  expression  by  using  figures  of  speech ; for 
figurative  language  is  natural  to  all  men. 


332 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  239. 

SIMILES  AND  METAPHORS. 

The  most  important  figures  of  speech  are  the  simile 
and  the  metaphor.  Both  of  these  are  founded  on  com- 
parison ; they  express,  in  different  ways,  our  perception 
of  the  likeness  between  two  objects  or  ideas. 

When  we  say  ‘‘A  cat  is  like  a tiger’’  or  <<  The  cat  is  as  fierce 
as  a tiger,”  we  are  making  a comparison,  but  it  is  a comparison 
of  fact,  and  our  language  is  not  figurative.  We  mean  that  a cat 
actually  resembles  a tiger  in  its  appearance,  habits,  and  disposition, 
and  that  the  two  creatures  belong  to  the  same  order  of  animals. 

If  we  go  one  step  farther  and  say,  ‘‘  The  soldier  fought  like  a 
tiger,”  our  expression  is  figurative.  We  do  not  mean  that  the 
soldier  fought  with  his  teeth  and  nails,  but  that  he  exhibited  such 
strength,  activity,  and  ferocity  as  to  remind  us  of  a tiger.  Our 
comparison  is  still  expressed  in  the  form  of  a likeness : but  it  is 
no  longer  literal;  it  is  imaginative.  We  have  used  a simile. 

t'inally,  we  may  change  The  soldier  fought  like  a tiger  ” into 
“ The  soldier  was  a tiger  in  fight.”  The  meaning  is  the  same ; 
but  this  time  the  comparison  is  not  expressed;  it  is  merely 
implied.  Instead  of  comparing  the  soldier  to  a tiger,  we  have 
called  him  a tiger,  — that  is,  we  have  actually  applied  to  him  the 
name  of  the  animal  which  he  resembles.  Such  an  expression  is 
called  a metaphor. 

A simile,  then,  expresses  a figurative  resemblance 
between  two  objects  or  ideas  in  the  form  of  a compari- 
son (usually  with  like  or  as).  A metaphor  indicates  this 
resemblance  by  applying  to  one  of  the  objects  or  ideas 
a word  that  literally  designates  the  other. 

Every  simile  may  be  compressed  into  a metaphor; 
every  metaphor  may  be  expanded  into  a simile. 


SIMILES  AND  METAPHORS. 


333 


The  following  examples  will  illustrate  the  difference 
between  these  figures  of  speech.  The  first  five  are 
similes ; the  rest  are  metaphors.  Change  each  simile 
into  a metaphor  and  each  metaphor  into  a simile,  and 
observe  the  difference  in  effectiveness. 

1 . Like  madness  is  the  story  of  this  life. 

2.  It  is  too  rash  ; too  unadvised  ; too  sudden  ; 

Too  like  the  lightning,  which  doth  cease  to  be 
Ere  one  can  say  “ It  lightens.’’ 

3.  Your  face,  my  thane,  is  as  a book  where  men 
May  read  strange  matters. 

4.  His  power,  like  to  a fangless  lion. 

May  offer,  but  not  hold. 

5.  If  we  do  now  make  our  atonement  well. 

Our  peace  will,  like  a broken  limb  united, 

Grow  stronger  for  the  breaking. 

6.  This  rudeness  is  a sauce  to  his  good  wit. 

Which  gives  men  stomach  to  digest  his  words 
With  better  appetite. 

7.  And  why  should  Caesar  be  a tyrant  then? 

Poor  man  ! 1 know  he  would  not  be  a wolf 

But  that  he  sees  the  Romans  are  but  sheep  : 

He  were  no  lion,  were  not  Romans  hinds. 

8.  Lowliness  is  young  Ambition’s  ladder. 

Whereto  the  climber-upward  turns  his  face ; 

But  when  he  once  attains  the  upmost  round. 

He  straight  unto  the  ladder  turns  his  back. 

Looks  in  the  clouds,  scorning  the  base  degrees 
By  which  he  did  ascend. 

9.  Boy  ! Lucius  ! Fast  asleep  ! It  is  no  matter  ; 

Enjoy  the  honey-heavy  dew  of  slumber. 

Thou  hast  no  figures  nor  no  fantasies 
Which  busy  care  draws  in  the  brains  of  men  : 

Therefore  thou  sleep’st  so  sound. 


334 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


Similes  are  sometimes  long  and  elaborate,  as  in  the 
following  lines  from  Goldsmith’s  “Traveller”:  — 

As  some  lone  miser,  visiting  his  store, 

Bends  at  his  treasure,  counts,  recounts  it  o’er ; 

Hoards  after  hoards  his  rising  raptures  fill. 

Yet  still  he  sighs,  for  hoards  are  wanting  still : 

Thus  to  my  breast  alternate  passions  rise. 

Pleased  with  each  good  that  Heaven  to  man  supplies  : 
Yet  oft  a sigh  prevails,  and  sorrows  fall. 

To  see  the  hoard  of  human  bliss  so  small ; 

And  oft  I wish  amidst  the  scene  to  find 
Some  spot  to  real  happiness  assigned. 

Where  my  worn  soul,  each  wandering  hope  at  rest. 
May  gather  bliss  to  see  my  fellows  blest. 

A metaphor,  also,  may  be  sustained  and  carried  out 
to  considerable  length,  as  in  the  following  passage  from 
Gray’s  ode  on  “The  Progress  of  Poesy”:  — 

From  Helicon’s  harmonious  springs 
A thousand  rills  their  mazy  progress  take : 

The  laughing  flowers  that  round  them  blow 
Drink  life  and  fragrance  as  they  flow. 

Now  the  rich  stream  of  music  winds  along. 

Deep,  majestic,  smooth,  and  strong. 

Through  verdant  vales,  and  Ceres’  golden  reign  : 

Now,  rolling  down  the  steep  amain. 

Headlong,  impetuous,  see  it  pour ; 

The  rocks  and  nodding  groves  rebellow  to  the  roar. 

A long  metaphor  is  analogous,  in  its  general  effect, 
to  a periodic  sentence  (p.  296).  In  both  the  mind  of 
the  reader  is,  as  it  were,  held  in  suspense  till  the  end 
of  the  passage  is  reached. 


PERSONIFICATIOX  AND  APOSTKOPHE. 


335 


Sometimes  a simile  and  a metaphor  are  inextricably 
combined,  as  in  the  following  passage  from  Othello”:  — 

Like  to  the  Pontic  sea, 

Whose  icy  current  and  compulsive  course 
Ne’er  feels  retiring  ebb,  but  keeps  due  on 
To  the  Propontic  and  the  Hellespont; 

Even  so  my  bloody  thoughts,  with  violent  pace. 

Shall  ne’er  look  back,  ne’er  ebb  to  humble  love. 

Till  that  a capable  and  wide  revenge 
Swallow  them  up. 

Metonymy  is  a figure  by  which  the  name  of  one  object 
is  given  to  another,  not  by  way  of  comparison  (as  in 
metaphors),  but  because  one  suggests  the  other  by  some 
association  of  facts  or  ideas. 

Examples  : the  knife,  for  surgery  ; the  press,  for  the  newspapers ; 
crown,  for  royal  government ; the  plough,  for  agriculture ; a good 
head,  for  a good  mind ; a troop  of  horse-,  for  a troop  of  horsemen ; 
to  address  the  chair,  for  the  chairman;  the  bench,  for  the  judges ; 
to  read  Shakspere,  for  Shakspere’s  works. 


SECTION  240. 

PEKSONIFICATION  AND  APOSTEOPHE. 

Personification  is  a figure  of  speech  which  represents 
(1)  a lifeless  object,  (2)  one  of  the  lower  animals,  or 
(3)  an  idea,  quality,  or  other  abstraction,  as  a person,  — 
that  is,  as  capable  of  thought,  feeling,  and  speech. 
Thus,  — 

Thou  sure  and  firm-set  earth. 

Hear  not  my  steps,  which  way  they  walk,  for  fear 
Thy  very  stones  prate  of  my  whereabout,  — Shakspere. 


336 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


They  left  me  then,  when  the  gray-hooded  Ev’n, 

Like  a sad  votarist  in  palmer's  weed, 

Rose  from  the  hindmost  wheels  of  Phcebus’  wain.  — Milton. 

Who  loves  not  Knowledge  ? Who  shall  rail 
Against  her  beauty  ? May  she  mix 
With  men  and  prosper  ! Who  shall  fix 
Her  pillars  ? Let  her  work  prevail.  — Tennyson. 

The  personification  of  lifeless  objects  is  a natural  tendency  of 
the  human  mind,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  talk  of  young  children. 
The  personification  of  abstract  ideas  is  common  in  poetry  and  is 
the  basis  of  all  allegory.  The  personification  of  animals  is  per- 
haps a survival  of  a very  early  stage  of  culture  when  animals  were 
regarded  as  capable  of  thought  and  speech. ^ It  is  commonest  in 
fables. 

Apostrophe  (that  is,  turning  away  ”)  is  a figure  by 
which  the  writer  or  speaker  suddenly  turns  aside  from 
the  course  which  he  is  pursuing  and  addresses  some 
person  or  personified  object.  Thus,  — 

What  trash  is  Rome, 

What  rubbish  and  what  offal,  when  it  serves 
For  the  base  matter  to  illuminate 
So  vile  a thing  as  Caesar  ! But,  0 griefs 
Where  hast  thou  led  me  f I perhaps  speak  this 
Before  a willing  bondman ; then  I know 
My  answer  must  be  made.  — Shakspere. 

Famous  examples  of  apostrophe  are  Byron’s  address  to  the 
sea  in  “ Childe  Harold,”  Canto  iv,  stanzas  179-84  ; Cowper’s  ‘‘  O 
winter,  ruler  of  the  inverted  year  ” in  The  Task,”  Book  iv ; 
Macbeth  to  the  dagger  in  ‘‘Macbeth,”  Act  ii.  Scene  1;  “Julius 
Caesar,”  Act  ii.  Scene  1,  lines  77-85,  and  Act  iii.  Scene  2,  lines 
104-5. 

1 See  “ The  Mother  Tongue,”  Book  II,  p.  HI. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 


337 


SECTION  241. 

THE  USE  OF  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 

Similes  and  metaphors,  as  we  have  seen,  are  not  mere 
adornments  of  style ; they  enhance  the  expressiveness 
of  language.  By  indicating  or  suggesting  comparisons, 
they  make  the  thought  clearer,  and  their  picturesque 
quality  stimulates  the  reader’s  attention. 

We  must  be  careful,  however,  not  to  multiply  figures 
of  speech  beyond  what  the  subject  will  bear.  An 
excessively  figurative,  or  florid,^  style  is  tiresome  and  in 
bad  taste.  Display  is  as  objectionable  in  language  as 
in  dress.  Far-fetched  or  over-ingenious  figures  are  also 
to  be  avoided,  and  the  same  is  true  of  those  that  are 
commonplace  or  hackneyed.  If  one’s  imagination  is 
awake,  figures  will  suggest  themselves  spontaneously. 
If  they  have  to  be  fished  for,  or  painfully  thought  out, 
they  are  not  likely  to  be  worth  the  trouble. 

We  should  also  test  the  accuracy  and  soundness  of  a 
figure  before  using  it  in  composition.  If  the  compari- 
son on  which  it  depends  is  unreal  or  fantastic,  the 
figure  will  darken  the  subject  instead  of  illuminating  it. 

A figure  should  be  consistent  with  itself.  Careless 
writers  frequently  run  two  or  three  discordant  meta- 
phors into  one,  without  regard  to  their  incongruity. 

Thus,  a headlong  orator,  in  denouncing  his  opponent,  once 
cried  out,  ‘‘  We  must  bring  the  viper  to  his  knees.''  The  bewil- 
dering maze  of  figures  in  the  passage  that  follows  was  noticed  in 
a recent  newspaper:  “When  Mr.  Hay  began  his  work  in  1899, 


1 That  IS  flowery  (see  p.  308). 


338 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


the  open  door  was  an  elusive  dream.  He  crystallized  it  into 
form,  and  added  to  it  the  integrity  of  China,  the  preservation  of 
which  is  now  solemnly  guaranteed  by  five  great  powers.” 

To  THE  Teacher.  — Faulty  combination  of  figures  is  a delicate  sub- 
ject, since  everybody  knows  that  the  poets  mix  metaphors  without  scruple. 
It  is  easy,  however,  to  make  a distinction.  The  heat  of  a poet’s  imagina- 
tion may  fuse  two  metaphors  so  that  their  original  incongruity  is  no  longer 
perceived ; but  the  mixed  metaphors  of  unpractised  writers  are  not  of  this 
kind.  They  come,  not  from  imaginative  strength,  but  from  defective 
vision,  — from  a failure  to  perceive  the  exact  meaning  of  the  several  words. 
Besides,  great  authors  may  take  liberties  which  beginners  cannot  justly 
claim. 


SECTION  242. 

CONCISENESS. 

A vigorous  style  ^ is  almost  always  concise.  W e should 
use  words  enough  to  express  our  thoughts  and  feelings 
fully  and  clearly,  but  should  aim  at  brevity  in  the  body 
of  our  essays  and  should  ‘‘stop  when  we  get  through.” 
Verbosity  is  the  most  tiresome  of  rhetorical  faults. 

It  is  good  practice  to  go  over  a passage  that  we 
have  written  and  strike  out  all  the  words  that  are  not 
essential  to  the  thought.  This  process  may  leave  the 
passage  rough  and  abrupt,  and  unfit  for  presentation  ; 
but  the  object  lesson  in  conciseness  will  be  valuable. 
We  shall  probably  be  surprised  at  the  small  number  of 
words  that  are  absolutely  necessary. 

In  many  cases,  the  statement  of  one  fact  necessarily  implies 
other  facts,  which  it  is  superfluous  to  mention,  except  sometimes 
for  the  sake  of  emphasis.  For  example,  if  we  say  that  the  day 

1 A vigorous  style  is  often  called  nervous  (from  the  Latin  nervus^ 
“ sinew  ”). 


CONCISENESS. 


339 


is  bright,”  we  need  not  add  that  ‘‘the  sky  is  blue”;  and  if  we 
have  said  that  “ the  teamster  beat  his  horses,”  we  may  take  it  for 
granted  that  he  was  cruel.  In  each  case  the  second  fact  is  so 
obviously  implied  by  the  first  that  the  reader  cannot  help  drawing 
the  inference  for  himself.  In  condensing,  we  should  bear  in 
mind  the  possibility  of  rearranging  the  sentences  so  as  to  bring 
the  less  important  facts  into  subordinate  clauses. 

Excessive  brevity  may  result  in  obscurity  or  abrupt- 
ness. A telegram  is  typical  of  brevity,  for  it  dispenses 
with  everything  but  the  mere  skeleton  of  expression; 
but  we  all  know  that  telegrams  are  frequently  ambiguous 
and  that  they  are  seldom  smooth  or  elegant  in  style. 
W e should  strive  to  write  tersely,  — that  is,  with  polished 
conciseness,  but  we  should  omit  nothing  that  enriches  the 
thought  or  that  aids  the  reader’s  understanding  and 
stimulates  his  attention. 

Terse  is  often  misused  as  a synonym  for  short  or  pithy.  It  is 
derived  from  the  Latin  tersus,  “ polished,”  and  implies  finish  as 
well  as  conciseness. 

The  degree  of  conciseness  must  vary  with  the  nature 
of  the  subject  and  with  the  effect  that  we  wish  to  pro- 
duce. A leisurely  style  is  appropriate  to  certain  topics 
and  kinds  of  writing.  Thus,  — 

I love  to  search  out  the  sunny  slopes  under  some  northern 
shelter  where  the  reflected  sun  does  double  duty  to  the  earth, 
and  where  the  frail  hepatica,  or  the  faint  blush  of  the  arbutus, 
in  the  midst  of  the  bleak  March  atmosphere,  will  touch  your 
heart,  like  a hope  of  heaven  in  a field  of  graves.  — Ik  Marvel. 

This  might  be  cut  down  to  — 

I like  the  slopes  protected  from  the  north  where  the  reflected 
sun  brings  out  the  hepatica  and  the  arbutus  in  April. 


340 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


Such  treatment,  however,  would  spoil  the  beauty  of 
the  passage.  The  bare  outline  of  the  thought  would 
alone  be  left ; all  the  sentiment  and  imaginative  sugges- 
tion of  the  original  would  be  destroyed. 

Here,  again,  we  must  be  guided  by  the  principles  of 
appropriateness  and  expressiveness.  The  actual  number 
of  words  can  be  determined  only  by  the  purpose  of  the 
writer. 

The  natural  tendency  of  the  English  language  is  to 
be  copious  and  discursive.  We  should  be  on  our  guard, 
therefore,  against  yielding  to  this  tendency  overmuch, 
or  on  inappropriate  occasions.  Few  writers,  young  or 
old,  are  in  any  danger  of  being  too  concise. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — Verbosity  is  so  common  a fault  with  young  writers 
that  there  is  little  risk  of  laying  too  much  stress  on  conciseness.  It  is 
important,  however,  that  the  pupils  should  not  apply  the  pruning  knife  to 
masterpieces  of  literature.  They  may  easily  be  led  to  see  that  the  charm 
of  certain  writers  depends  in  large  part  on  their  leisurely  but  discrimi- 
nating diffuseness.  Finally,  they  should  learn  that  mere  excision  of 
redundant  words  does  not  make  a style  terse.  Rearrangement  and  pol- 
ishing are  also  necessary. 


SECTION  243. 

REPETITION. 

Repetition  is  a natural  tendency  of  language.  We  may 
often  emphasize  an  idea,  and  make  it  clearer  and  easier 
to  grasp,  by  presenting  it  from  different  points  of  view 
and  in  varying  terms. 

Note  the  repetition  in  the  following  passage  : — 

In  order  that  a new  world  may  step  in,  this  world  must  for  a 
time  disappear.  The  murderers,  and  the  murder,  must  be  insu- 
lated — cut  off  by  an  immeasurable  gulf  from  the  ordinary  tide 


REPETITION. 


341 


and  succession  of  human  affairs  — locked  up  and  sequestered  in 
some  deep  recess;  we  must  be  made  sensible  that  the  world  of 
ordinary  life  is  suddenly  arrested  — laid  asleep  — tranced  — 
racked  into  a dread  armistice  ; time  must  be  annihilated ; relation 
to  things  without  abolished ; and  all  must  pass  self -withdrawn 
into  a deep  syncope  and  suspension  of  earthly  passion. 

De  Quincey. 

Compare  the  beginning  of  Macbeth’s  soliloquy:  — 

If  it  were  done  when  T is  done,  then ’t  were  well 
It  were  done  quickly  : if  the  assassination 
Could  trammel  up  the  consequence,  and  catch. 

With  his  surcease,  success ; that  but  this  blow 
Might  be  the  be-all  and  the  end-all  here,  — 

But  here,  upon  this  bank  and  shoal  of  time,  — 

We ’d  jump  the  life  to  come.  — Shakspere. 

Here  the  single  thought  in  Macbeth’s  mind  is,  If  the  murder 
and  all  that  it  involves  were  done  with  when  the  blow  is  struck, 
then  the  sooner  I killed  Duncan  the  better.”  This  thought  is 
expressed  literally,  in  the  first  clause,  and  then  is  dwelt  on,  in 
varying  figures  of  speech,  till  the  end  of  the  passage. 

Explanatory  writing  makes  frequent  use  of  repetition,  as 
in  the  following  paragraph  from  Matthew  Arnold:  — 

And  because  men  are  all  members  of  one  great  family,  and  the 
sympathy  which  is  in  human  nature  will  not  allow  one  member 
to  be  indifferent  to  the  rest,  or  to  have  a perfect  welfare  inde- 
pendent of  the  rest,  the  Expansion  of  our  humanity,  to  suit  the 
idea  of  perfection  which  culture  forms,  must  be  a General  Expan- 
sion. Perfection,  as  culture  conceives  it,  is  not  possible  while  the 
individual  remains  isolated.  The  individual  is  required,  under 
pain  of  being  stunted  and  enfeebled  in  his  own  development  if  he 
disobey,  to  carry  others  along  with  him  in  his  march  towards 
perfection,  to  be  continually  doing  all  he  can  to  enlarge  and 
increase  the  volume  of  the  human  stream  sweeping  thitherward. 


342 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


And  here,  once  more,  culture  lays  on  us  the  same  obligation  as 
religion,  which  says,  as  Bishop  Wilson  has  admirably  put  it,  that 
to  promote  the  kingdom  of  God,  is  to  increase  and  hasten  one’s 
own  happiness.” 

The  gist  of  the  paragraph  might  be  given  in  a single  sentence. 
‘‘  Culture  in  the  individual  cannot  be  separated  from  culture  in 
the  race.”  This  thought  is  repeated  several  times,  with  variations, 
until  it  becomes  perfectly  clear  in  its  application  and  finds  per- 
manent lodgement  in  the  reader’s  mind.^ 

Excessive  and  purposeless  repetition  is  a tiresome 
fault.  Such  repetition  is  called  tautology,  — that  is, 
“ sa3dng  the  same  thing  over  again.” 

Common  tautologous  phrases  are  ; — funeral  obsequies,  kill  him 
dead,  food  and  sustenance,  trouble  and  annoyance,  blood  and,  gore, 
quarrelling  and  disputing,  first  beginning,  final  (or  last)  end,  final 
outcome,  new  and  novel,  brave  and  daring,  sure  and  certain, ^weak 
and  feeble.  ‘"f  ' ' ■ .*  ' ^ 

Many  similar  phrases  are  established  idioms:*  as,  — end  and 
aim,  without  let  or  hindrance,  goods  and  chattels,  act-arid  deed^  ^r- 
pose  or  end,  ways  and  means,  over  and  done  with,  frjee  and  clear,  safe 
and  sound. 

Repetition,  then,  though  of  great  utility  when  skilfully 
managed,  is  often  a serious  fault.  The  only  test  by 
which  we  can  determine  whether  a word  is  actually 
redundant  is  to  observe  whether  it  can  he  spared  without 
loss.  Common  sense  prescribes  that  we  should  use  only 
such  words  as  are  needed  to  produce  the  effect  intended 
in  each  case. 

1 This  method  of  constructing  a paragraph  by  repetition  of  the  topic 
sentence  in  various  forms  is  a favorite  device  with  Matthew  Arnold,  who 
is,  indeed,  somewhat  over-fond  of  it. 


INCREASING  ONE’S  VOCABULARY. 


843 


In  such  a sentence  as  lie  fell  down  and  jumped  up  again,” 
down  and  again  are  not  redundant ; for  without  them  the  sentence 
lacks  emphasis  and  expressiveness.  So,  in  I saw  it  with  my  own 
eyes^’’^  the  italicized  phrase  makes  the  statement  more  personal 
and  forcible.  On  the  other  hand,  the  phrases  quoted  in  the  third 
paragraph  on  page  342  are  plain  examples  of  redundancy,  for 
the  tautologous  words  may  be  omitted  without  loss  and  with  a 
manifest  gain  in  vigor. 

Redundancy  is  also  called  pleonasm. 


SECTION  244. 

MEAN'S  OF  INCREASING  ONE^S  VOCABULARY. 

As  our  knowledge  increases  and  we  have  occasion  to 
express  our  thoughts  on  a greater  variety  of  subjects, 
we  feel  the  need  of  a larger  stock  of  words  to  draw  from. 
Wide  and  attentive  reading  is  the  best  way  to  increase 
one’s  vocabulary,  but  there  are  special  means  that  assist 
to  the  same  end. 

Some  great  writers  have  been  fond  of  studying  the 
Dictionary ; many  people  make  lists  of  new  words  that 
they  hear  or  come  across  in  books.  Another  good  plan 
is  to  find  synonyms  for  common  words  (as  in  the  exer- 
cises on  pages  34-35).  Still  another  is  to  play  a kind  of 
game  in  which,  as  you  go  along  the  street,  you  try  to 
fit  each  house,  or  person,  or  animal  that  you  see  with 
an  apt  word  or  phrase. 

Study  of  a foreign  language  is  an  excellent  means  of 
enlarging  one’s  English  vocabulary. 

When  you  look  up  a Latin  or  French  or  German  word  in  your 
dictionary,  do  not  rest  satisfied  with  the  first  meaning  you  come 
to,  or  with  the  first  that  will  satisfy  your  immediate  needs. 


344 


THE  MOTHEK  TONGUE. 


Kead  through  all  the  meanings,  so  that  you  may  get  a <<  feeling  ” 
for  the  sense  of  the  word  in  question.  Thus  you  will  increase 
your  command  of  the  foreign  language,  and  will  add  to  your 
English  vocabulary  at  the  same  time.  In  translating,  try  to  find 
the  word  or  phrase  which  best  expresses  the  exact  shade  of  mean- 
ing of  the  original.  Note  differences  of  idiom,  and  endeavor  to 
reproduce  in  English  the  tone  and  style  of  the  passage  that  you 
are.  rendering.  A bald  and  literal  version  misrepresents  the 
original  and  is  likely  to  be  bad  English  as  well. 

One  thing  is  always  necessary  in  the  attempt  to 
increase  one’s  vocabulary,  and  that  is  attention.  If  your 
mind  is  on  the  alert,  every  book  that  you  read  and  every 
intelligent  conversation  in  which  you  engage  may  add 
to  your  stock.  Cultivate  a quick  ear  and  a ready  eye 
for  new  words,  and  an  intelligent  curiosity  about  their 
meaning  and  their  origin.  Such  an  interest  will  do 
much  to  fix  them  in  your  mind.  Whenever  you  make 
the  acquaintance  of  a new  subject,  familiarize  yourself 
with  the  vocabulary  needed  to  discuss  it  intelligibly. 
Thus  your  vocabulary  and  your  knowledge  will  always 
stand  in  a proper  relation  to  each  other. 

Do  not  enlarge  your  vocabulary  merely  for  show. 
Add  to  your  available  stock  such  words  as  you  will  be 
likely  to  need.  Do  not  let  your  words  outrun  your  ideas. 
Be  sure  that  you  know  the  meaning  of  every  word  that 
you  use,  and  that  you  know  it  exactly,  not  merely  in  a 
vague  and  shadowy  way. 

No  matter  how  many  words  you  know  or  how  well 
you  know  them,  you  will  not  write  well  unless  you 
think  clearly  and  get  vivid  impressions  of  the  world 
about  you.  Effective  use  of  words  follows  in  the  train 
of  effective  thought. 


CLEARNESS. 


345 


SECTION  245. 

CLEARNESS. 

Our  study  of  composition  has  passed  in  review  the 
different  kinds  of  writing  and  has  considered  the  special 
principles  and  methods  of  each,  as  well  as  the  require- 
ments which  apply  to  them  all  alike.  Of  all  these  gen- 
eral requirements  none  is  of  such  primary  importance 
as  clearness  (or  perspicuity),  for  without  this  quality  there 
can  be  no  real  expression  of  thought. 

The  most  serious  offence  against  clearness  is  ambiguity, 
— that  is,  the  use  of  language  that  may  be  taken  in 
more  senses  than  one. 

Ambiguity  may  result  from  an  unskilful  choice  of  words,  from 
confusion  of  grammatical  constructions,  or  from  a faulty  arrange- 
ment of  the  sentence.  We  should  therefore  give  particular  heed 
to  our  pronouns  (especially  Ae,  it,  ivho,  and  wliicK)  and  to  the 
position  of  every  modifying  phrase  or  clause.^ 

Even  when  our  language  is  not  ambiguous,  it  may 
be  vague,  obscure,  or  so  involved  as  to  be  difficult  to 
follow.  Unless  we  think  clearly,  we  cannot  write 
clearly ; but  when  our  thoughts  are  clear,  we  can  always 
express  them  intelligibly  if  we  are  willing  to  take  pains 
enough.  Hence  we  should  criticise  our  own  style 
mercilessly,  revise  with  extreme  care,  and  never  be 
satisfied  until  we  feel  sure  that  nobody  can  help  under- 
standing what  we  have  written.  When  we  have  once 
learned  to  write  clearly,  the  chances  are  that  force  and 
elegance  are  within  our  reach.  At  all  events,  we  have 
accomplished  the  main  end  of  composition  as  a practical  art. 

1 See  pp.  380-1)0. 


346 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


SECTION  246. 

The  extracts  in  Sections  246-9  afford  good  examples 
of  paragraphing  and  of  sentence  structure.^ 

TANGLEWOOD  PORCH.2 
By  Hawthorne. 

Beneath  the  porch  of  the  country-seat  called  Tangle  wood,  one 
fine  autumnal  morning,  was  assembled  a merry  party  of  little 
folks,  with  a tall  youth  in  the  midst  of  them.  They  had  planned 
a nutting  expedition,  and  were  impatiently  waiting  for  the  mists 
to  roll  up  the  hill-slopes,  and  for  the  sun  to  pour  the  warmth  of 
the  Indian  summer  over  the  fields  and  pastures,  and  into  the  nooks 
of  the  many-colored  woods.  There  was  a prospect  of  as  fine  a day 
as  ever  gladdened  the  aspect  of  this  beautiful  and  comfortable 
world.  As  yet,  however,  the  morning  mist  filled  up  the  whole 
length  and  breadth  of  the  valley,  above  which,  on  a gently  sloping 
eminence,  the  mansion  stood. 

This  body  of  white  vapor  extended  to  within  less  than  a hun- 
dred yards  of  the  house.  It  completely  hid  everything  beyond 
that  distance,  except  a few  ruddy  or  yellow  tree-tops,  which  here 
and  there  emerged,  and  were  glorified  by  the  early  sunshine,  as 
was  likewise  the  broad  surface  of  the  mist.  Four  or  five  miles 
off  to  the  southward  rose  the  summit  of  Monument  Mountain,  and 
seemed  to  be  floating  on  a cloud.  Some  fifteen  miles  farther 
away,  in  the  same  direction,  appeared  the  loftier  Dome  of  Taconic, 
looking  blue  and  indistinct,  and  hardly  so  substantial  as  the 
vapory  sea  that  almost  rolled  over  it.  The  nearer  hills,  which 
bordered  the  valley,  were  half  submerged,  and  were  specked  with 
little  cloud- wreaths  all  the  way  to  their  tops.  On  the  whole,  there 

1 See  pp.  264  ff.,  270,  274,  282,  289,  295,  etc. 

2 From  A Wouder-Book  for  Girls  and  Boys.” 


SELECTIONS. 


347 


was  so  much  cloud,  and  so  little  solid  earth,  that  it  had  the  effect 
of  a vision. 

The  children  above-mentioned,  being  as  full  of  life  as  they 
could  hold,  kept  overflowing  from  the  porch  of  Tangle  wood,  and 
scampering  along  the  gravel  walk,  or  rushing  across  the  dewy 
herbage  of  the  lawn.  I can  hardly  tell  how  many  of  these  small 
people  there  were ; not  less  than  nine  or  ten,  however,  no  more 
than  a dozen,  of  all  sorts,  sizes,  and  ages,  whether  girls  or  boys. 
They  were  brothers,  sisters,  and  cousins,  together  with  a few  of 
their  young  acquaintances,  who  had  been  invited  by  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Pringle  to  spend  some  of  this  delightful  weather  with  their  own 
children,  at  Tangle  wood.  I am  afraid  to  tell  you  their  names,  or 
even  to  give  them  any  names ^^hich  other  children  have  ever  been 
called  by ; because,  to  my  certain  knowledge,  authors  sometimes 
get  themselves  into  great  trouble  by  accidentally  giving  the  names 
of  real  persons  to  the  characters  in  their  books.  For  this  reason, 
I mean  to  call  them  Primrose,  Periwinkle,  Sweet  Fern,  Dandelion, 
Blue  Eye,  Clover,  Huckleberry,  Cowslip,  Squash-blossom,  Milk- 
weed, Plantain,  and  Buttercup ; although,  to  be  sure,  such  titles 
might  better  suit  a group  of  fairies  than  a company  of  earthly 
children. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  these  little  folks  were  to  be  per- 
mitted by  their  careful  fathers  and  mothers,  uncles,  aunts,  or 
grandparents,  to  stray  abroad  into  the  woods  and  fields,  without 
the  guardianship  of  some  particularly  grave  and  elderly  person. 
O no,  indeed  ! In  the  first  sentence  of  my  book,  you  will  recollect 
that  I spoke  of  a tall  youth,  standing  in  the  midst  of  the  children. 
His  name  — (and  I shall  let  you  know  his  real  name,  because  he 
considers  it  a great  honor  to  have  told  the  stories  that  are  here  to 
be  printed)  — his  name  was  Eustace  Bright.  He  was  a student 
at  Williams  College,  and  had  reached,  I think,  the  venerable  age 
of  eighteen  years  ; so  that  he  felt  quite  like  a grandfather  towards 
Periwinkle,  Dandelion,  Huckleberry,  Squash-blossom,  Milkweed, 
and  the  rest,  who  were  only  half  or  a third  as  venerable  as  he.  A 
trouble  in  his  eyesight  (such  as  many  students  think  it  necessary 


348 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


to  have,  nowadays,  in  order  to  prove  their  diligence  at  their  books) 
had  kept  him  from  college  a week  or  two  after  the  beginning  of 
the  term.  But,  for  my  part,  I have  seldom  met  with  a pair  of 
eyes  that  looked  as  if  they  could  see  farther  or  better  than  those 
of  Eustace  Bright. 

This  learned  student  was  slender,  and  rather  pale,  as  all  Yankee 
students  are  ; but  yet  of  a healthy  aspect,  and  as  light  and  active 
as  if  he  had  wings  to  his  shoes.  By  the  by,  being  much  addicted 
to  wading  through  streamlets  and  across  meadows,  he  had  put  on 
cowhide  boots  for  the  expedition.  He  wore  a linen  blouse,  a 
cloth  cap,  and  a pair  of  green  spectacles,  which  he  had  assumed, 
probably,  less  for  the  preservation  of  his  eyes,  than  for  the  dignity 
that  they  imparted  to  his  countenance.  In  either  case,  however, 
he  might  as  well  have  let  them  alone ; for  Huckleberry,  a mischie- 
vous little  elf,  crept  behind  Eustace  as  he  sat  on  the  steps  of  the 
porch,  snatched  the  spectacles  from  his  nose,  and  clapped  them  on 
her  own ; and  as  the  student  forgot  to  take  them  back,  they  fell 
oft  into  the  grass,  and  lay  there  till  the  next  spring. 


SECTION  247. 

HOUSEKEEPING. 

By  Jane  Welsh  Carlyle. i 

So  many  talents  are  wasted,  so  many  enthusiasms  turned  to 
smoke,  so  many  lives  spoiled  for  want  of  a little  patience  and 
endurance,  for  want  of  understanding  and  laying  to  heart  the 
meaning  of  the  Present^  — for  want  of  recognizing  that  it  is  not 
the  greatness  or  littleness  of  ‘‘  the  duty  nearest  hand,’’  but  the 
spirit  in  which  one  does  it,  that  makes  one’s  doing  noble  or  mean  ! 
I can’t  think  how  many  people  who  have  any  natural  ambition 
and  any  sense  of  power  in  them,  escape  going  mad  in  a world  like 
this  without  the  recognition  of  that.  I know  I was  very  near  mad 

1 From  a letter  in  Froude’s  “Life  of  Carlyle,”  Vol.  I,  Chap.  ii. 


SELECTIONS. 


349 


when  I found  it  out  for  myself  (as  one  has  to  find  out  for  one’s 
self  everything*  that  is  to  be  of  any  real  practical  use  to  one). 

Shall  I tell  you  how  it  came  into  my  head?  Perhaps  it  may 
be  of  comfort  to  you  in  similar  moments  of  fatigue  and  disgust. 
I had  gone  wdth  my  husband  to  live  on  a little  estate  of  peat  bog 
that  had  descended  to  me  all  the  w^ay  down  from  John  Welsh, 
the  Covenanter,  who  married  a daughter  of  John  Knox.  That 
did  n’t,  I am  ashamed  to  say,  make  me  feel  Craigenputtock  a whit 
less  of  a peat  bog,  and  a most  dreary,  untoward  place  to  live  at. 
In  fact,  it  was  sixteen  miles  distant  on  every  side  from  all  the 
conveniences  of  life,  — shops  and  even  post  office.  Further,  we 
were  very  poor,  and  further  (and  worst),  being  an  only  child,  and 
brought  up  to  great  prospects,”  I was  sublimely  ignorant  of 
every  branch  of  useful  knowledge,  though  a capital  Latin  scholar 
and  very  fair  mathematician. 

It  behooved  me  in  these  astonishing  circumstances  to  learn  to 
sew.  Husbands,  I was  shocked  to  find,  wore  their  stockings  into 
holes,  and  were  always  losing  buttons,  and  I was  expected  to 
look  to  all  that.”  Also  it  behooved  me  to  learn  to  cook  ! no 
capable  servant  choosing  to  live  at  such  an  out-of-the-way  place, 
and  my  husband  having  bad  digestion,  which  complicated  my 
difficulties  dreadfully.  The  bread,  above  all,  brought  from  Dum- 
fries, soured  on  his  stomach”  (O  heaven!),  and  it  was  plainly 
my  duty  as  a Christian  wife  to  bake  at  home. 

So  I sent  for  Corbett’s  ‘‘  Cottage  Economy,”  and  fell  to  work 
at  a loaf  of  bread.  But,  knowing  nothing  about  the  process  of 
fermentation  or  the  heat  of  ovens,  it  came  to  pass  that  my  loaf 
got  put  into  the  oven  at  the  time  that  myself  ought  to  have  been 
put  into  bed ; and  I remained  the  only  person  not  asleep  in  a 
‘ house  in  the  middle  of  a desert. 

One  o’clock  struck,  and  then  two,  and  then  three ; and  still  I 
was  sitting  there  in  an  immense  solitude,  my  whole  body  aching 
with  weariness,  my  heart  aching  with  a sense  of  forlornness  and 
degradation.  That  I,  who  had  been  so  petted  at  home,  whose 
comfort  had  been  studied  by  everybody  in  the  house,  who  had 


350 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


never  been  required  to  do  anything  but  cultivate  my  mind,  siiould 
have  to  pass  all  those  hours  of  the  night  in  watching  a loaf  of 
bread,  — which  mightn’t  turn  out  bread  after  all ! Such  thoughts 
maddened  me,  till  I laid  down  my  head  on  the  table  and  sobbed 
aloud. 

It  was  then  that  somehow  the  idea  of  Benvenuto  Cellini  sitting 
up  all  night  watching  his  Perseus  in  the  furnace  came  into  my 
head,  and  suddenly  I asked  myself : After  all,  in  the  sight  of 
the  upper  powers,  what  is  the  mighty  difference  between  a statue 
of  Perseus  and  a loaf  of  bread,  so  that  each  be  the  thing  that 
one’s  hand  has  found  to  do?  The  man’s  determined  will,  his 
energy,  his  patience,  his  resource  were  the  really  admirable  things, 
of  which  his  statue  of  Perseus  was  the  mere  chance  expression. 
If  he  had  been  a woman  living  at  Craigenputtock,  with  a dyspep- 
tic husband,  sixteen  miles  from  a baker,  and  he  a bad  one,  all 
these  qualities  would  have  come  out  more  fitly  in  a good  loaf  of 
bread.” 

I cannot  express  what  consolation  this  germ  of  an  idea  spread 
over  my  uncongenial  life  during  the  years  we  lived  at  that  savage 
place,  where  my  two  immediate  predecessors  had  gone  mad,  and 
the  third  had  taken  to  drink. 


SECTION  248. 

THE  SIEGE  OF  ARGOT.  i 
By  Macaulay. 

Clive  was  now  twenty-five  years  old.  After  hesitating  for 
some  time  between  a military  and  a commercial  life,  he  had  at 
length  been  placed  in  a post  which  partook  of  both  characters, 
that  of  commissary  to  the  troops,  with  the  rank  of  captain.  The 
present  emergency  called  forth  all  his  powers.  He  represented 
to  his  superiors  that,  unless  some  vigorous  effort  were  made, 


1 From  the  essay  ou  “ Lord  Clive.” 


SELECTIONS. 


351 


Trichinopoly  would  fall,  the  house  of  Anaverdy  Khan  would 
perish,  and  the  French  would  become  the  real  masters  of  the 
whole  peninsula  of  India.  It  was  absolutely  necessary  to  strike 
some  daring  blow.  If  an  attack  were  made  on  Arcot,  the  capital 
of  the  Carnatic,  and  the  favorite  residence  of  the  Nabobs,  it  was 
not  impossible  that  the  siege  of  Trichinopoly  would  be  raised. 
The  heads  of  the  English  settlement,  now  thoroughly  alarmed  by 
the  success  of  Dupleix,  and  apprehensive  that,  in  the  event  of  a 
new  war  between  France  and  Great  Britain,  Madras  would  be 
instantly  taken  and  destroyed,  approved  of  Clive's  plan,  and 
intrusted  the  execution  of  it  to  himself.  The  young  captain  was 
put  at  the  head  of  two  hundred  English  soldiers,  and  three  hun- 
dred sepoys,  armed  and  disciplined  after  the  European  fashion. 
Of  the  eight  officers  who  commanded  this  little  force  under  him, 
only  two  had  ever  been  in  action,  and  four  of  the  eight  were 
factors  of  the  Company,  whom  Clive’s  example  had  induced  to 
offer  their  services.  The  weather  was  stormy ; but  Clive  pushed 
on,  through  thunder,  lightning,  and  rain,  to  the  gates  of  Arcot. 
The  garrison,  in  a panic,  evacuated  the  fort,  and  the  English 
entered  it  without  a blow. 

But  Clive  well  knew  that  he  should  not  be  suffered  to  retain 
undisturbed  possession  of  his  conquest.  He  instantly  began  to 
collect  provisions,  to  throw  up  works,  and  to  make  preparations 
for  sustaining  a siege.  The  garrison,  which  had  fled  at  his 
approach,  had  now  recovered  from  its  dismay,  and,  having  been 
swollen  by  large  reinforcements  from  the  neighbourhood  to  a 
force  of  three  thousand  men,  encamped  close  to  the  town.  At 
dead  of  night,  Clive  marched  out  of  the  fort,  attacked  the  camp 
by  surprise,  slew  great  numbers,  dispersed  the  rest,  and  returned 
to  his  quarters  without  having  lost  a single  man. 

The  intelligence  of  these  events  was  soon  carried  to  Chunda 
Sahib,  who,  with  his  French  allies,  was  besieging  Trichinopoly. 
He  immediately  detached  four  thousand  men  from  his  camp,  and 
sent  them  to  Arcot.  They  were  speedily  joined  by  the  remains 
of  the  force  which  Clive  had  lately  scattered.  They  were  further 


352 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


strengthened  by  two  thousand  men  from  Yellore,  and  by  a still 
more  important  reinforcement  of  a hundred  and  fifty  French 
soldiers  whom  Dupleix  despatched  from  Pondicherry.  The  whole 
of  this  army,  amounting  to  about  ten  thousand  men,  was  under 
the  command  of  Rajah  Sahib,  son  of  Chunda  Sahib. 

Rajah  Sahib  proceeded  to  invest  the  fort  of  Arcot,  which 
seemed  quite  incapable  of  sustaining  a siege.  The  walls  were 
ruinous,  the  ditches  dry,  the  ramparts  too  narrow  to  admit  the 
guns,  the  battlements  too  low  to  protect  the  soldiers.  The  little 
garrison  had  been  greatly  reduced  by  casualties.  It  now  consisted 
of  a hundred  and  twenty  Europeans  and  two  hundred  sepoys. 
Only  four  officers  were  left ; the  stock  of  provisions  was  scanty ; 
and  the  commander,  who  had  to  conduct  the  defence  under  cir- 
cumstances so  discouraging,  was  a young  man  of  five  and  twenty, 
who  had  been  bred  a book-keeper. 

During  fifty  days  the  siege  went  on.  During  fifty  days  the 
young  captain  maintained  the  defence,  with  a firmness,  vigi- 
lance, and  ability  which  would  have  done  honour  to  the  oldest 
marshal  in  Europe.  The  breach,  however,  increased  day  by  day. 
The  garrison  began  to  feel  the  pressure  of  hunger.  Under  such 
circumstances,  any  troops  so  scantily  provided  with  officers  might 
have  been  expected  to  show  signs  of  insubordination ; and  the 
danger  was  peculiarly  great  in  a force  composed  of  men  differing 
widely  from  each  other  in  extraction,  color,  language,  manners, 
and  religion.  But  the  devotion  of  the  little  band  to  its  chief 
surpassed  anything  that  is  related  of  the  Tenth  Legion  of  Caesar, 
or  of  the  Old  Guard  of  Napoleon.  The  sepoys  came  to  Clive, 
not  to  complain  of  their  scanty  fare,  but  to  propose  that  all  the 
grain  should  be  given  to  the  Europeans,  who  required  more 
nourishment  than  the  natives  of  Asia.  The  thin  gruel,  they  said, 
which  was  strained  away  from  the  rice,  w'ould  suffice  for  them- 
selves. History  contains  no  more  touching  instance  of  military 
fidelity,  or  of  the  inffueiice  of  a commanding  mind. 

An  attempt  made  by  the  government  of  Madras  to  relieve  the 
place  had  failed.  But  there  was  hope  from  another  quarter.  A 


SELECTIONS. 


353 


body  of  six  thousand  Mahrattas,  half  soldiers,  half  robbers,  under 
the  command  of  a chief  named  Morari  Eow,  had  been  hired  to 
assist  Mohammed  Ali ; but  thinking  the  French  power  irresistible, 
and  the  triumph  of  Chunda  Sahib  certain,  they  had  hitherto 
remained  inactive  on  the  frontiers  of  the  Carnatic.  The  fame  of 
the  defence  of  Arcot  roused  them  from  their  torpor.  Morari 
Row  declared  that  he  had  never  before  believed  that  Englishmen 
could  hght,  but  that  he  would  willingly  help  them  since  he  saw 
that  they  had  spirit  to  help  themselves.  Rajah  Sahib  learned 
that  the  Mahrattas  were  in  motion.  It  was  necessary  for  him  to 
be  expeditious.  He  first  tried  negotiation.  He  offered  large 
bribes  to  Clive,  which  were  rejected  with  scorn.  He  vowed  that, 
if  his  proposals  were  not  accepted,  he  would  instantly  storm  the 
fort,  and  put  every  man  in  it  to  the  sword.  Clive  told  him  in 
reply,  with  characteristic  haughtiness,  that  his  father  was  an 
usurper,  that  his  army  was  a rabble,  and  that  he  would  do 
well  to  think  twice  before  he  sent  such  poltroons  into  a breach 
defended  by  English  soldiers. 

Rajah  Sahib  determined  to  storm  the  fort.  The  day  was  well 
suited  to  a bold  military  enterprise.  It  was  the  great  Moham- 
medan festival  which  is  sacred  to  the  memory  of  Hosein  the  son 
of  Ali.  The  history  of  Islam  contains  nothing  more  touching 
than  the  event  which  gave  rise  to  that  solemnity.  The  mournful 
legend  relates  how  the  chief  of  the  Fatimites,  when  all  his  brave 
followers  had  perished  round  him,  drank  his  latest  draught  of 
water,  and  uttered  his  latest  prayer,  how  the  assassins  carried  his 
head  in  triumph,  how  the  tyrant  smote  the  lifeless  lips  with  his 
staff,  and  how  a few  old  men  recollected  with  tears  that  they  had 
seen  those  lips  pressed  to  the  lips  of  the  Prophet  of  God.  After 
the  lapse  of  near  twelve  centuries,  the  recurrence  of  this  solemn 
season  excites  the  fiercest  and  saddest  emotions  in  the  bosoms  of 
the  devout  Moslem  of  India.  They  work  themselves  up  to  such 
agonies  of  rage  and  lamentation  that  some,  it  is  said,  have  given 
up  the  ghost  from  the  mere  effect  of  mental  excitement.  They 
believe  that  whoever,  during  this  festival,  falls  in  arms  against 


854 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


the  infidels,  atones  by  his  death  for  all  the  sins  of  his  life,  and 
passes  at  once  to  the  garden  of  the  Houris.  It  was  at  this  time 
that  Rajah  Sahib  determined  to  assault  Arcot.  Stimulating 
drugs  were  employed  to  aid  the  effect  of  religious  zeal,  and  the 
besiegers,  drunk  with  enthusiasm,  drunk  with  bang,  rushed  furi- 
ously to  the  attack. 

Clive  had  received  secret  intelligence  of  the  design,  had  made 
his  arrangements,  and,  exhausted  by  fatigue,  had  thrown  him- 
self on  his  bed.  He  was  awakened  by  the  alarm,  and  was 
instantly  at  his  post.  The  enemy  advanced,  driving  before  them 
elephants  whose  foreheads  were  armed  with  iron  plates.  It  was 
expected  that  the  gates  would  yield  to  the  shock  of  these  living 
battering-rams.  But  the  huge  beasts  no  sooner  felt  the  English 
musket-balls  than  they  turned  round,  and  rushed  furiously  away, 
trampling  on  the  multitude  which  had  urged  them  forward.  A 
raft  was  launched  on  the  water  which  filled  one  part  of  the  ditch. 
Clive,  perceiving  that  his  gunners  at  that  post  did  not  understand 
their  business,  took  the  management  of  a piece  of  artillery  him- 
self, and  cleared  the  raft  in  a few  minutes.  Where  the  moat 
was  dry,  the  assailants  mounted  with  great  boldness ; but  they 
were  received  with  a fire  so  heavy  and  so  well-directed,  that  it 
soon  quelled  the  courage  even  of  fanaticism  and  of  intoxication. 
The  rear  ranks  of  the  English  kept  the  front  ranks  supplied 
with  a constant  succession  of  loaded  muskets,  and  every  shot 
told  on  the  living  mass  below.  After  three  desperate  onsets, 
the  besiegers  retired  behind  the  ditch. 

The  struggle  lasted  about  an  hour.  Four  hundred  of  the 
assailants  fell.  The  garrison  lost  only  five  or  six  men.  The 
besieged  passed  an  anxious  night,  looking  for  a renewal  of 
the  attack.  But  when  day  broke,  the  enemy  were  no  more  to 
be  seen.  They  had  retired,  leaving  to  the  English  several  guns 
and  a large  quantity  of  ammunition. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — This  selection  has  been  used  chiefly  to  illustrate 
paragraphing ; but  it  also  affords  excellent  material  for  additional  exercises 
in  sentence  structure.  The  perspicuity  and  incisiveness  of  Macaulay’s 
style  will  be  felt  by  every  pupil. 


SELECTIONS. 


355 


SECTION  249. 

THE  DEFINITION  OF  A GENTLEMAN.  i 
By  Newman. 

Hence  it  is  that  it  is  almost  a definition  of  a gentleman  to  say 
he  is  one  who  never  inflicts  pain.  This  description  is  both 
refined  and,  as  far  as  it  goes,  accurate.  He  is  mainly  occupied 
in  merely  removing  the  obstacles  which  hinder  the  free  and 
unembarrassed  action  of  those  about  him ; and  he  concurs  with 
their  movements  rather  than  takes  the  initiative  himself.  His 
benefits  may  be  considered  as  parallel  to  what  are  called  comforts 
or  conveniences  in  arrangements  of  a personal  nature : like  an 
easy  chair  or  a good  fire,  which  do  their  part  in  dispelling  cold 
and  fatigue,  though  nature  provides  both  means  of  rest  and 
animal  heat  without  them.  The  true  gentleman  in  like  manner 
carefully  avoids  whatever  may  cause  a jar  or  a jolt  in  the  minds 
of  those  with  whom  he  is  cast,  — all  clashing  of  opinion,  or  col- 
lision of  feeling,  all  restraint,  or  suspicion,  or  gloom,  or  resent- 
ment; his  great  concern  being  to  make  every  one  at  his  ease 
and  at  home.  He  has  his  eyes  on  all  his  company ; he  is  tender 
towards  the  bashful,  gentle  towards  the  distant,  and  merciful 
towards  the  absurd ; he  can  recollect  to  w^hom  he  is  speaking ; he 
guards  against  unseasonable  allusions,  or  topics  which  may 
irritate;  he  is  seldom  prominent  in  conversation,  and  never 
wearisome.  He  makes  light  of  favors  while  he  does  them,  and 
seems  to  be  receiving  when  he  is  conferring.  He  never  speaks  of 
himself  except  when  compelled,  never  defends  himself  by  a mere 
retort ; he  has  no  ears  for  slander  or  gossip,  is  scrupulous  in  imput- 
ing motives  to  those  who  interfere  with  him,  and  interprets  every- 
thing for  the  best.  He  is  never  mean  or  little  in  his  disputes, 
never  takes  unfair  advantage,  never  mistakes  personalities  or 
sharp  sayings  for  arguments,  or  insinuates  evil  which  he  dare  not 


1 From  “ The  Idea  of  a University.” 


356 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


say  out.  From  a long-sighted  prudence,  he  observes  the  maxim 
of  the  ancient  sage,  that  we  should  ever  conduct  ourselves  towards 
our  enemy  as  if  he  were  one  day  to  be  our  friend.  He  has  too 
much  good  sense  to  be  affronted  at  insults,  he  is  too  well  employed 
to  remember  injuries,  and  too  indolent  to  bear  malice.  He  is 
patient,  forbearing,  and  resigned,  on  philosophical  principles ; he 
submits  to  pain,  because  it  is  inevitable,  to  bereavement,  because 
it  Ls  irreparable,  and  to  death,  because  it  is  his  destiny. 

If  he  engages  in  controversy  of  any  kind,  his  disciplined  intel- 
lect preserves  him  from  the  blundering  discourtesy  of  better,  per- 
haps, but  less  educated  minds ; who,  like  blunt  weapons,  tear  and 
hack  instead  of  cutting  clean,  who  mistake  the  point  in  argument, 
waste  their  strength  on  trifles,  misconceive  their  adversary,  and 
leave  the  question  more  involved  than  they  find  it.  He  may  be 
right  or  wrong  in  his  opinion,  but  he  is  too  clear-headed  to  be 
unjust;  he  is  as  simple  as  he  is  forcible,  and  as  brief  as  he  is 
decisive.  Nowhere  shall  we  find  greater  candor,  consideration, 
indulgence : he  throws  himself  into  the  minds  of  his  opponents, 
he  accounts  for  their  mistakes.  He  knows  the  weakness  of 
human  reason  as  well  as  its  strength,  its  province  and  its  limits. 

If  he  be  an  unbeliever,  he  will  be  too  profound  and  large- 
minded  to  ridicule  religion  or  to  act  against  it ; he  is  too  wise  to 
be  a dogmatist  or  fanatic  in  his  infidelity.  He  respects  piety  and 
devotion ; he  even  supports  institutions  as  venerable,  beautiful,  or 
useful,  to  which  he  does  not  assent ; he  honors  the  ministers  of 
religion,  and  it  contents  him  to  decline  its  mysteries  without 
assailing  or  denouncing  them.  He  is  a friend  of  religious  tolera- 
tion, and  that,  not  only  because  his  philosophy  has  taught  him  to 
look  on  all  forms  of  faith  wdth  an  impartial  eye,  but  also  from  the 
gentleness  and  effeminacy  of  feeling,  which  is  the  attendant  on 
civilization. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  EXERCISES. 


SUBJECTS  FOR  COMPOSITIONS. 

(1)  A Page  in  a Diary.  (2)  A Day  at  the  Lake.  (3)  A Half- 
Holiday  in  May.  (4)  My  First  Impressions  of  the  High  School. 
(5)  The  Character  of  Sir  Galahad.  (6)  A Country  Road  in 
Spring.  (7)  Longfellow’s  ‘^Evangeline.”  (8)  The  Playthings 
of  a Four-year-old.  (9)  How  we  Made  our  Camp.  (10)  How  to 
Catch  Trout.  (11)  The  Oldest  House  in  our  Town.  (12)  The 
Destruction  of  St.  Pierre.  (13)  A Bit  of  Human  Nature. 
(14)  Theatres  in  Shakspere’s  Time.  (15)  “ Snow-Bound.”  (1 6)  Tom 
Tulliver.  (17)  Uriah  Heep.  (18)  The  Book  I Like  Best.  (19)  A 
Visit  to  the  Farm.  (20)  How  Sugar  is  Made.  (21)  Life  on  a 
Ranch.  (22)  A Winter  Evening.  (23)  Kate’s  Contribution  to 
the  Housekeeping.  (24)  How  Robert  Paid  the  Mortgage. 
(25)  How  a Boy  may  Earn  his  Living.  (26)  Three  Good  Rea- 
sons for  Studying  Grammar.  (27)  From  the  Oak  Tree  to  the 
Library  Table.  (28)  The  Trees  of  our  Village.  (29)  The  Trees 
in  the  Hill  Pasture.  (30)  Learning  to  Sail  a Boat.  (31)  What 
the  Fisherman  Told  me.  (32)  The  Long  Summer  Vacation. 
(33)  Why  I Wish  to  go  to  College.  (34)  Hawthorne’s  Descrip- 
tions of  Nature.  (35)  The  Story  of  a Child.  (36)  An  American 
Hero.  (37)  The  Life  of  an  Engineer.  (38)  The  Work  which 
is  Worth  Doing.  (39)  How  Rapid  Transit  Affects  City  Life. 
(40)  The  Advantages  of  Travel. 

The  following  subjects  are  to  be  assigned  in  advance.  The 
pupils  should  prepare  for  the  exercise  by  reading,  observation,  or 
study.  The  writing  should  be  done  in  the  class  and  should  occupy 

357 


358 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


not  more  than  five  minutes.  All  the  pupils  should  write  upon 
the  same  subject,  and  the  compositions  should  be  exchanged  and 
criticised  during  the  same  recitation  period. 

The  composition  may  consist  of  one  paragraph  or  of  several, 
according  to  the  plan  of  the  writer. 

1.  What  is  your  opinion  of  Maggie  Tulliver? 

2.  Should  students  give  any  time  to  light  reading? 

' 3.  Do  you  like  the  poems  of  Robert  Burns,  and  why  ? 

4.  Which  attracts  you  more,  country  life  or  city  life  ? 

5.  Give  reasons  for  your  choice  of  subjects  in  school. 

6.  What  kind  of  occupation  seems  most  attractive  to  you? 
Give  your  reasons. 

7.  Which  is  of  greater  importance  to  the  commonwealth, 
farming  or  manufacturing? 

8.  Which  seems  to  youthehigher  occupation,  trade  or  teaching? 

9.  What  in  your  opinion  are  the  essentials  of  good  manners  ? 

10.  Give  reasons  for  maintaining  quiet  demeanor  and  a digni- 
fied manner  in  public. 

11.  Explain  one  of  the  conjmon  campaign  phrases  of  the  day. 

12.  Give  at  least  five  reasons  for  taking  regular  and  varied 
out-of-door  exercise. 

13.  What  are  your  chief  duties  to  your  neighbor? 

14.  What  do  you  understand  by  a prig  ? a fop  ? an  exquisite  f 
an  epicure  f 

The  following  subjects  involve  narration  or  description,  or 
both.  They  are  intended  to  be  suggestive  merely. 

(1)  My  Stroll  on  the  Beach.  (2)  My  First  Hour  in  a Sailboat. 
(3)  Our  Valley  at  Sunset.  (4)  Looking  Down  from  the  Moun- 
tain. (5)  The  Harbor  in  a Fog.  (6)  Lost  on  the  Prairie. 
(7)  In  Pursuit  of  Three  Buttons  and  a Spool  of  Silk.  (8)  The 
Good  Comrade  in  School.  (9)  How  I Learned  to  Skate.  (10)  A 
Winter  Morning  after  the  Rain.  (11)  The  Longest  Way  Round 
is  the  Shortest  Way  Home.  (12)  How  I Wrote  my  First  Com- 
position. (13)  How  Jack  Earned  his  Class  Pin.  (14)  How  I 
took  Care  of  my  Garden.  (15)  The  Daily  Mail  at  Smithville. 


EXERCISES. 


359 


NAERATIOK 

1.  Bring  to  the  class  some  story  in  which  the  introductory 
paragraph  contains  a description. 

2.  Carefully  enumerate  the  items  which  are  included  in  the 
introduction  to  ‘‘The  Battle  of  Bannockburn  ” (pp.  11-12).  Show 
how  the  movement  of  the  story  might  have  been  hindered  by  the 
omission  of  any  of  these  items.  How  does  this  introduction  differ 
from  those  which  you  have  studied  in  previous  exercises? 

3.  Find  in  magazines  or  newspapers  short  stories  or  anec- 
dotes introduced  by  a short  paragraph  or  a single  sentence : 
for  example,  “ The  following  story  appeared  in  the  ‘ Springfield 
Republican’  at  the  time  of  the  spring  floods,”  or  “Thomas 
Hughes  relates  this  story  of  Dr.  Arnold.” 

4.  Select  from  some  story  with  which  you  are  familiar  a brief 
bit  of  narrative  or  conversation.  Copy  the  selection  to  read  in 
the  class,  and  preface  the  extract  with  such  introductory  matter 
as  seems  to  you  suitable.  Make  the  introduction  as  clear  and 
concise  as  possible. 

5.  Recite  one  of  ^sop’s  fables.  If  the  story  is  formally  intro- 
duced, describe  the  introduction.  If  the  writer  has  omitted  the 
introduction,  give  reasons  for  the  omission. 

6.  Write  the  outline  of  a brief  anecdote,  noting  (1)  the 
purpose  and  details  of  the  introduction,  and  (2)  the  items  to 
be  included  in  the  story. 

7.  Tell  the  story  of  Pandora.  You  will  find  the  material  in 
Hawthorne’s  “Wonder-Book.” 

8.  Report  some  story  of  a child.  Let  the  story  include  a 
dialogue. 

9.  Write  an  imaginary  story  of  adventure. 

10.  The  story  of  a prairie  fire.  — A twelve-year-old  girl  is  left  at 
home  to  care  for  her  little  sister  and  baby  brother.  The  sister  is 
at  i^lay  in  the  yard,  the  baby  is  asleep.  The  girl  looks  from 
the  window  and  sees  fire  on  the  distant  prairie.  She  has  heard 
stories  of  the  havoc  wrought  by  prairie  fires ; wraj^s  both  children 


360 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


in  wet  quilts ; mounts  a horse  with  them ; urges  him  forward  ; 
races  with  the  fire ; and  at  last  reaches  the  creek  and  is  safe. 

11.  Tell  the  story  of  a practical  joke.  (1)  Let  the  one  who 
played  the  joke  tell  it,  with  great  delight  in  his  achievement. 
(2)  Let  the  one  upon  whom  the  joke  was  played  recite  it,  showing 
the  serious  consequences  of  the  trick.  (3)  Let  some  one  who  has 
heard  both  sides  tell  the  story,  showing  real  understanding  and 
appreciation  of  both  sides.  (4)  Let  some  critic  tell  the  story, 
blaming  the  joker  and  sympathizing  with  the  person  who  suf- 
fered from  the  trick. 

12.  A little  girl  follows  a hand  organ.  She  is  lost  and  tries 
to  find  her  way  home.  She  is  met  and  recognized  by  the  milk- 
man, who  carries  her  with  him  over  his  route,  and  returns  her  to 
her  home  in  the  evening.  (1)  Tell  the  story  as  if  it  happened  in 
the  city;  in  the  country.  (2)  Report  the  incident  for  a news- 
paper. (3)  Recite  the  incident,  placing  it  in  the  country. 
(4)  Tell  it  as  the  milkman  might  rehearse  it.  (5)  Report  the 
child’s  version  of  the  story.  (6)  Tell  the  whole  story  as  the  child’s 
mother  might  recite  it  afterwards. 

13.  Tell  the  story  of  the  combat  in  Matthew  Arnold’s  “Sohrab 
and  Rustum.”  Let  your  introduction  explain  the  circumstances 
so  that  the  incident  shall  be  intelligible. 

14.  Select  an  incident  from  Thackeray’s  ‘‘Virginians”  and  tell 
it  in  your  own  words. 

15.  Give  a brief  account  of  the  plot  of  “The  Merchant  of 
Venice  ” ; of  “ As  You  Like  It.” 

16.  Write  from  memory  the  story  of  one  of  the  folio  wing- 
selections  from  Hawthorne’s  “Twice-Told  Tales”:  — “David 
Swan,”  “ Old  Esther  Dudley,”  “ Mr.  Higginbotham’s  Catastro- 
phe,” “ Howe’s  Masquerade,”  “ Lady  Eleanore’s  Mantle,”  “ The 
Minister’s  Black  Veil.” 

17.  How  did  Robinson  Crusoe  become  acquainted  with  his 
man  Friday?  Tell  the  story,  with  a brief  introduction  explain- 
ing how  Robinson  came  to  be  on  a desert  island. 

18.  Write  a story  suggested  by  some  incident  mentioned  in 
the  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  papers. 


EXERCISES. 


361 


DESCRIPTION. 

1.  Your  uncle  has  given  you  a pony  and  cart.  Write  a letter 
to  him,  thanking  him  for  his  gift,  and  expressing  your  apprecia- 
tion of  it.  Write  a letter  to  a friend,  describing  (1)  the  gift; 
(2)  your  first  drive. 

2.  Describe  a day  on  a farm. 

3.  Report  a visit  to  a hayfield,  where  the  men  were  making 
hay.  Do  not  forget  the  landscape,  the  weather,  the  sweet  odors 
of  the  field,  the  appearance  of  the  passers-by. 

4.  Repeat  Exercise  3,  imagining  yourself  employed  in  ‘‘  raking 
after  the  cart.” 

5.  Describe  a pasture  in  the  country,  — situation,  character 
of  the  ground,  trees,  bushes,  boulders,  etc.  Be  careful  not  to 
make  a mere  inventory. 

6.  Write  a description  of  your  school  yard  as  you  see  it  from 
the  window. 

7.  Describe  your  schoolhouse  as  seen  from  the  street. 

8.  An  abandoned  street  car,  in  the  outskirts  of  the  city,  is  set 
in  a field  and  used  by  an  eccentric  old  man  as  a house.  Describe 
the  exterior ; the  interior. 

Describe  the  old  man  who  lives  in  the  car. 

9.  A fire  breaks  out  in  your  hotel  in  the  night.  You  are 
accidentally  locked  in  your  room.  You  hear  — (what?).  You 
smell  — (what?).  You  see  — (what?).  You  try  to  escape  — 
(how?).  You  are  rescued  — (how?). 

Write  a full  description,  maintaining  your  point  of  view. 

10.  Describe  a quarry.  If  possible,  visit  a quarry,  and  make 
notes  for  your  outline.  Tell  what  you  see  (1)  from  above ; 
(2)  from  below. 

Be  prepared  to  report  your  visit  to  the  class,  using  your  notes 
as  a guide.  Be  careful  to  arrange  the  items  of  your  description 
in  proper  order. 

11.  Describe  the  cover  of  some  magazine. 


362 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


12.  Describe  the  interior  of  a hall  or  church,  as  if  you  were 
standing  at  the  entrance  (1)  when  the  hall  is  full ; (2)  when  it  is 
empty. 

13.  Describe  some  old-fashioned  costume  that  you  have  seen. 

14.  When  school  is  dismissed.’’  Describe  the  scene.  Let  it 
be  at  midday,  in  June. 

Write  your  description  from  the  teacher’s  point  of  view ; again, 
from  the  pupil’s  side ; once  more,  as  if  you  were  a passer-by. 

15.  Write  a brief  description  of  one  of  the  characters  in 
the  following  list : — Silas  Marner ; Florence  Dombey ; Captain 
Cuttle  ; Benjamin  Franklin  ; Lafayette  ; Florence  Nightingale  ; 
Sir  Roger  de  Coverley ; Enoch  Arden  ; Ellen  Douglas  ; Rebecca  ; 
Ivanhoe ; the  Ancient  Mariner. 

16.  Write  a description  in  the  present  tense.  Imagine  that 
you  are  approaching  the  scene  described.  Introduce  new  details 
as  you  come  nearer. 

17.  Write  a description  of  the  country  as  seen  from  the  train  in 
which  you  are  travelling.  You  will  observe  the  marked  features 
of  the  landscape,  and  not  the  details. 

18.  Write  a description  in  which  you  suggest  sounds  and  odors 
as  well  as  the  scene  which  you  describe. 

19.  You  climb  a hill  in  order  to  observe  the  sunrise.  The 
scene  may  be  in  the  city  or  the  country,  in  October  or  in  June. 
Write  the  description. 

20.  Describe  a statue  with  which  you  are  familiar.  If  there 
is  none  in  your  immediate  neighborhood,  write  the  description 
from  a picture. 

21.  Describe  two  objects  by  contrasting  them.  Select  two 
which  are  different  and  yet  comparable.  Prepare  your  composi- 
tion for  reading  in  the  class. 

22.  Test  one  of  the  descriptions  in  this  book  by  means  of  the 
following  questions  : — Is  the  description  clear  ? Is  it  accurate  ? 
Is  it  interesting  ? Does  it  present  a related  whole  ? What  is  the 
principal  element  of  the  description  ? What  are  the  subordinate 
details  ? What  is  the  general  impression  made  by  the  description  ? 


EXERCISES. 


363 


EXPLANATION  AND  EXPLANATORY 
DESCRIPTION. 

1.  Describe  a bridge  in  your  vicinity. 

a.  Tell  v^here  it  is. 

h.  Write  a clear  description  of  its  appearance.  Speak  of 
the  material,  design,  and  general  plan  of  structure. 
Use  such  technical  terms  as  are  necessary  to  make 
your  meaning  clear.  These  may  be  learned  from 
conversation  with  bridge  builders  or  from  reading. 

2.  Write  a description  of  a schoolhouse  with  which  you  are 
familiar.  Tell  where  it  is  situated,  and  describe  its  appearance. 
Tell  what  you  know  of  the  school  itself,  the  neighborhood  it  rep- 
resents, the  character  of  the  pupils,  and  add  any  interesting  and 
pertinent  facts  which  occur  to  you  as  you  write. 

3.  You  have  found  a wild  flower  which  you  have  never  seen 
before.  Write  to  a friend  who  has  some  knowledge  of  plants, 
and  describe  the  flower,  asking  its  name.  Use  such  botanical 
terms  as  are  necessary  to  make  your  meaning  clear. 

4.  Write  about  fences. 

a.  Use  of  fences ; how  the  use  determines  the  kind. 

h.  Kinds  (with  description  of  particular  sorts  which  you 
have  seen,  — the  New  England  stone  wall,  the  Vir- 
ginia rail  fence,  stump  fences,  barbed-wire  fences,  etc.). 

c.  Disappearance  of  the  fence  in  cities. 

5.  Describe  a visit  to  some  manufactory.  In  preparing  your 
description  use  the  following  outline  : — 

a.  Introductory  sentence,  including  location,  name,  and 
character  of  the  manufactory. 

h.  The  building  from  without. 

c.  The  departments,  or  rooms,  with  the  work  done  in  each. 

These  should  follow  the  order  of  the  manufacture. 

d.  The  finished  product. 

e.  The  distribution  of  the  manufactured  articles. 


364 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


6.  Describe  a blue  jay,  a crow,  an  owl,  a robin,  a duck,  or  a 
parrot.  In  preparing  your  description  use  the  following  outline  : — 

a.  Tell  where  the  bird  may  be  found  (its  habitat). 

h.  Describe  its  appearance,  — color,  size,  form,  etc. 

c.  Describe  its  habits. 

d.  Add  items  of  interest  which  occur  to  you. 

7.  Study  this  explanation  of  Thoreau's.  What  fact  does  he 
explain  ? How  does  he  explain  it  ? How  did  he  learn  this  truth  ? 
What  is  the  force  of  the  concluding  sentence  ? 

In  all  the  pines,  a very  thin  membrane,  in  appearance  much  like  an 
insect’s  wing,  grows  over  and  around  the  seed,  and  independent  of  it, 
while  the  latter  is  being  developed  within  its  base.  ...  In  other  words, 
a beautiful  thin  sack  is  woven  around  the  seed,  with  a handle  to  it  such 
as  the  wind  can  take  hold  of,  and  it  is  then  committed  to  the  wind,  expressly 
that  it  may  transport  the  seed  and  extend  the  range  of  its  species ; and  this 
it  does  as  effectually  as  when  seeds  are  sent  by  mail  in  a different  kind 
of  sack  from  the  patent  office. 

8.  Explain  some  fact  which  you  have  observed  in  nature  or 
learned  from  books.  Make  your  explanation  accurate,  as  w^ell  as 
clear,  no  matter  how  trivial  the  item  may  seem  to  you. 

9.  Select  one  of  the  following  topics  for  an  explanatory  descrip- 
tion, as  in  Exercise  1,  and  write  a paragraph  on  the  subject : — 

The  buds  of  the  horse-chestnut  tree.  Mullein. 

The  second  year  of  an  onion’s  life.  An  aquatic  plant. 

Clover  and  the  bees.  An  oriole’s  nest. 

10.  Describe  a suit  of  armor,  in  reply  to  a child  who  asks  you 
about  it. 

11.  Imagine  a person  who  has  never  seen  a railroad.  Explain 
to  him  the  general  plan  of  construction. 

12.  Bring  to  the  class  a short,  clear,  and  definite  explanation 
which  you  have  found  either  in  a text-book  or  in  a magazine. 
Read  it  aloud,  asking  your  classmates  to  discuss  the  explana- 
tion, and,  particularly,  to  ask  questions  about  such  parts  as  are 
not  entirely  clear. 

Rewrite  the  explanation  from  memory. 


EXERCISES. 


365 


13.  Make  definitions  of  familiar  objects,  as  a step  in  tlie 
process  of  explanation.  Observe  the  difference  between  an  exact 
and  logical  definition  and  a general  description.  Define  the 
objects  or  ideas  mentioned  in  the  list  below. 


cube 

fraction 

denominator 

prime  number 

pistil 

fern 

pitcher 

machine 

machinivSt 

commerce 


angle 

scalene  triangle 

commission 

subtrahend 

legume 

mushroom 

knife 

carpet 

engineer 

merchant 


triangle 

interest 

divisor 

petiole 

stamen 

spoon 

goblet 

engine 


silversmith 

warship 


14.  What  is  an  ocean  current?  Use  the  Gulf  Stream  as  an 
example  and  describe  clearly,  using  drawings. 

15.  Explain  the  formation  of  a delta,  as  in  the  Nile  or  the 
Mississippi  River. 

16.  What  is  meant  by  the  solar  spectrum?  Explain  by  a 
diagram  and  a written  descriptive  definition. 

17.  Explain  the  alphabet  used  in  telegraphy,  and  show  how  a 
message  is  sent. 

18.  Describe  Franklin’s  experiment  with  the  kite. 

19.  Why  does  a chestnut  snap  and  burst  while  roasting  ? 

20.  Turn  to  your  text-book  in  physiology.  Read  the  chapter 
which  explains  the  circulatory  system.  Make  a careful  outline 
of  the  subject,  as  the  author  presents  it,  and  be  prepared  to  recite 
orally  from  your  outline. 

21.  Turn  to  a good  physical  geography,  or  an  encyclopedia, 
and  find  a brief  and  clear  explanation.  Make  an  outline  of  the 
explanation,  and  report  it  to  the  class. 

22.  Describe  a railroad  switch.  Explain  (1)  its  use ; (2)  its 
appearance ; (3)  its  operation ; (4)  possible  consequences  of  a 
misplaced  switch,  with  actual  example. 


366 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


23.  Write  about  lamps.  (1)  Definition  of  your  subject; 
(2)  how  lamps  are  constructed;  (3)  how  lamps  should  be  cared 
for ; (4)  lamps  in  former  days. 

24.  What  is  a savings  bank  ? How  is  such  a bank  established 
in  your  state  ? How  is  an  account  opened  ? How  is  it  “ kept  ” 
or  recorded  ? How  is  money  deposited  ? How  is  interest  drawn  ? 
What  rate  per  cent  is  paid  ? If  interest  is  not  withdrawn,  what 
becomes  of  it  ? Should  a boy  or  girl  open  an  account  at  a savings 
bank  ? Why,  or  why  not  ? 

25.  Define  a suction  pump  ; describe  it ; explain  its  working  ; 
draw  a diagram  of  the  pump. 

Compare  definition,  description,  explanation,  and  diagram, 
showing  what  may  be  learned  from  each,  and  the  order  in  which 
you  receive  the  ideas  in  each  case. 

26.  Life  on  a cattle  ranch ; on  a wheat  ranch  ; on  a fruit  farm  ; 
on  a small  New  England  farm ; on  a plantation  in  the  South ; in 
a fishing  village  ; in  a mining  camp. 

27.  When  Washington  was  a boy  : an  explanation  of  Virginian 
life  in  colonial  days. 

28.  Prepare  an  outline  for  an  explanatory  description  of  a 
battle.  Announce  your  plan,  in  introductory  sentence.  Thus,  — 

“You  must  first  know  the  objective  point  of  both  armies, 
which  was  . . . Then  you  must  understand  the  position  of  the 
enemy,  which  was  . . . Then  I can  explain  our  movement  and 
its  result.” 

29.  Make  an  announcement  of  your  plan  for  explaining  the 
manufacture  of  steel  rails. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — These  exercises  should  be  extended  and  varied 
until  the  pupils  realize  the  necessity  of  clear  and  definite  arrangement. 
By  a discussion  of  some  familiar  subject  (the  system  of  the  school ; the 
arrangement  of  the  schoolhouse;  the  working  of  some  simple  machine 
whose  parts  may  be  seen  at  a single  glance  of  the  eye  but  must  be  treated 
consecutively  in  an  explanation)  the  pupils  may  be  taught  to  observe  the 
difference  between  the  natural  order  of  experience  and  the  systematic 
order  required  in  good  explanation.  When  this  principle  is  once  grasped, 
progress  is  easy. 


EXERCISES. 


367 


EXPLANATION  AND  PERSUASION. 

1.  You  are  visiting  your  cousin,  who  lives  on  a farm  in  the 
country.  The  adjoining  farm  is  for  sale.  Write  to  your  father, 
who  lives  in  New  York  City,  describing  the  farm  and  urging  him 
to  buy  it.  Explain  (1)  why  it  is  a good  investment ; (2)  how  it 
could  be  made  an  attractive  summer  place ; (3)  why  you  desire 
its  purchase. 

2.  You  have  planned  to  spend  next  summer  in  a business 
office.  Your  uncle  who  is  going  to  Europe  asks  you  to  go  with 
him.  Write  to  your  parents  telling  them  of  your  uncle’s  invita- 
tion and  urging  them  to  consent. 

3.  You  are  much  interested  in  the  study  of  birds.  Write  to 
a friend,  urging  her  to  begin  the  study.  Describe  the  manner  in 
which  you  became  interested ; tell  her  what  equipment  is  neces- 
sary, how  and  when  she  can  begin  the  study,  and  why  it  will  be 
profitable  to  her. 

4.  Write  a note  to  a cousin  who  is  to  spend  the  summer 
with  you,  asking  him  to  join  with  you  in  buying  a boat.  Give 
adequate  reasons  for  the  purchase. 

5.  Your  parents  are  planning  a summer  vacation  and  suggest 
either  the  seashore  or  a mountain  camp.  Write  to  them,  express- 
ing your  choice  and  giving  reasons.  Try  to  persuade  them  that 
one  plan  is  better  than  the  other. 

6.  Your  uncle  promises  you  a year  of  study  or  a year  of  travel. 
Your  sister  writes,  urging  you  to  choose  the  year  of  travel. 
Reproduce  her  letter. 

7.  Write  to  your  aunt  in  the  country,  urging  her  to  spend  the 
winter  with  you  in  the  city.  Show  her  that  it  will  be  pleasant 
for  her  and  agreeable  to  your  family. 

8.  A friend  is  hesitating  between  two  schools.  Write  to  him, 
trying  to  persuade  him  that  your  school  is  the  more  desirable. 

9.  Suppose  that  the  principal  of  your  school  requests  you  to 
write  a letter  to  the  school  committee  or  the  superintendent  of 
schools,  asking  for  a change  in  the  paper  supplied  for  compositions. 


368 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


You  have  hitherto  been  supplied  with  paper  in  double  sheets,  but 
it  is  thought  that  single  sheets,  to  be  bound  together  by  clips 
or  paper-fasteners,  will  be  more  convenient.  In  such  a letter  it 
would  not  be  enough  merely  to  state  that  you  want  another  kind 
of  paper.  You  must  also  explain  why  the  paper  you  now  have  is 
inconvenient,  and  why  the  new  paper  will  be  such  an  improve- 
ment as  to  make  the  change  worth  while.  Be  sure  that  you 
make  the  school  committee  or  the  superintendent  understand  the 
new  way  of  keeping  the  compositions. 


ARGUMENT  AND  PERSUASION. 

Subjects  for  letters,  for  debate,  or  for  extempore  speech.^ 

To  THE  Teacher.  — Speaking  extempore  is  a profitable  exercise.  Let 
each  pupil  write  his  name  upon  a slip  of  paper,  and  a topic  or  question 
involving  explanation  or  argument  upon  another  slip.  Put  the  names  of 
the  pupils  in  one  box,  the  subjects  in  another.  The  teacher  or  a selected 
pupil  should  then  draw  a subject  and  read  it  to  the  class,  and  then,  after 
a moment’s  pause  to  give  opportunity  for  thought,  should  draw  the  name 
of  a pupil.  This  pupil  should  then  be  required  to  speak  for  two  minutes 
on  the  subject  in  hand. 

1.  You  are  deciding  upon  your  course  of  study  in  a school  in 
which  all  the  subjects  are  elective.  Give  reasons  for  choosing  or 
omitting  English  composition ; algebra ; Latin ; physics. 

2.  Show  by  examples  that  a person’s  manner  of  speech  betrays 
or  does  not  betray  lack  of  education. 

3.  Are  written  examinations  useful,  or  otherwise  ? Why,  or 
why  not  ? 

4.  Why  should  the  public  demand  clean  streets?  How  can 
they  be  secured  ? 

5.  The  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals  is 
doing  a necessary  and  benevolent  work.  Show  reasons  for  the 

i Exercises  14-24  are  propositions  for  debate. 


EXERCISES. 


309 

existence  of  the  society.  Show  the  effect  of  the  society  upon 
the  standards  of  the  community.  Give  examples  to  prove  that 
the  work  is  both  useful  and  benevolent. 

6.  Children  should  be  taught  to  respect  public  property. 
Why?  How? 

7.  Good  roads  are  more  important  than  good  schools.  Prove 
or  disprove,  and  use  definite  examples. 

8.  A city  of  separate  houses  is  better  than  a city  of  tenements. 
Give  your  reasons  for  believing  this  to  be  true. 

9.  Play  is  just  as  necessary  as  work.  Show  the  effects  of  all 
work  and  no  play  ; of  all  play  and  no  work.  Give  examples 
showing  that  the  alternation  of  both  is  the  only  good  plan. 

10.  Grammar  is  a very  useful  study.  Show  by  examples  that 
this  is  true,  or  imagine  the  effect  of  complete  ignorance  of  the 
grammar  of  one’s  mother  tongue. 

11.  Geoffrey  Brown  wishes  to  spend  the  summer  at  a boys’ 
camp.  He  is  a young  student  at  an  academy.  He  writes  to  his 
father  and  mother,  urging  them  to  let  him  join  the  camping 
party.  He  tries  to  persuade  them  that  it  would  be  good  for  his 
health,  that  he  can  learn  much  from  association  with  the  masters 
and  the  other  boys,  that  the  money  required  will  be  well  spent, 
and  that  his  absence  will  be  in  some  ways  a relief  to  his 
parents.  (1)  Write  Geoffrey’s  first  letter,  outlining  the  plan. 
(2)  Write  the  father’s  reply,  raising  objections.  (8)  Reply  to 
the  objections. 

12.  The  town  of  Raleigh,  Missouri,  needs  a new  building  for 
the  high  school.  Some  of  the  townspeople  wish  to  build  a cheap 
temporary  structure  for  immediate  needs ; others  prefer  to  build 
for  the  future,  issuing  bonds  to  cover  the  greater  cost  of  the  better 
building.  The  subject  is  discussed  in  the  newspapers.  Write 
an  argument  for  each  side.  On  the  one  hand,  show  that  it  is 
more  economical  to  build  for  future  needs  than  to  put  money 
into  a temporary  and  inadequate  structure.  On  the  other  hand, 
show  that  debt  is  demoralizing,  that  it  is  better  for  the  children 
to  suffer  inconvenience  than  for  the  fathers  to  be  burdened  with 


870 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


debt,  and  that  future  contingencies  may  demand  something 
different  from  the  present  plan. 

The  material  collected  for  these  newspaper  articles  may  after- 
wards be  used  in  general  debate  on  the  subject. 

13.  Members  of  the  Albion  High  School  wish  to  organize  a 
literary  society  which  shall  hold  meetings  on  Friday  afternoons 
after  school.  The  proposition  is  to  be  discussed  at  a special 
meeting  of  the  students  called  for  the  purpose.  Prepare  argu- 
ments for  and  against  the  organization  of  the  society.  Some  of 
these  arguments  may  be  presented  from  the  pupils'  point  of  view  ; 
others  should  present  the  views  of  the  teachers  and  the  parents. 

In  preparing  these  argmnents  cite  instances  of  other  societies 
which  have  succeeded  or  have  failed ; show  the  advantages  of 
such  a voluntary  society;  state  the  effect  of  such  associations 
upon  other  duties,  in  school  or  at  home,  and  consider  the 
expenses  attending  the  organization. 

14.  Latin  should  be  a prescribed  study  throughout  the  high- 
school  course. 

15.  The  science  of  housekeeping  should  be  prescribed  for  girls 
in  the  high  school. 

16.  Fewer  subjects  should  be  taught  in  this  school,  and  those 
more  thoroughly. 

17.  Children  should  be  required  by  law  to  go  to  school  two 
years  longer  than  at  present. 

18.  The  rules  of  football  should  be  so  changed  as  to  produce  a 
more  open  game. 

19.  Interscholastic  athletics  should  be  encouraged. 

20.  Receiving  pay  for  taking  part  in  athletic  sports  should  bar 
the  receiver  from  amateur  contests. 

21.  Members  of  the  Cabinet  should  have  seats,  but  no  vote,  in 
the  House  of  Representatives. 

22.  The  city  (or  town)  government  should  do  more  for  the 
support  of  the  public  library. 

23.  United  States  senators  should  be  elected  by  popular  vote. 

24.  Wide  tires  should  be  required  by  law  on  heavy  wagons. 


EXERCISES. 


371 


PARAGRAPHS. 

1.  Study  the  second  and  third  paragraphs  in  Miss  Mitford’s 
description  (pp.  161-2).  Make  (or  find)  a topic  sentence  for  each. 
Observe  the  introductory  sentences.  Xote  how  the  paragraph 
presents  in  detail  the  subject  which  is  introduced  by  the  opening 
sentences. 

2.  Write  a paragraph  describing  a familiar  scene  in  autumn 
or  spring.  Let  the  paragraph  present  the  details  of  the  scene. 

3.  AYrite  a paragraph  describing  a person.  Use  the  plan 
followed  in  Exercise  2. 

4.  AYrite  one  or  more  paragraphs  on  the  subject  The 
borrower  is  servant  to  the  lender.”  Let  your  first  paragraph 
cohsist  of  an  introduction,  and  in  those  that  follow  give  instances 
or  examples  of  the  truth  under  discussion. 

5.  Find  in  some  text-book  three  paragraphs  constructed  as  in 
Exercise  4. 

6.  AYrite  three  paragraphs  giving  instances  or  examples  to 
explain  the  following  subject : ‘‘The  blusterer  is  not  always  a 
hero,  neither  is  the  modest  man  necessarily  a craven.” 

7.  Write  on  one  of  the  following  subjects,  making  each 
paragraph  explain  an  effect  of  the  cause  stated  in  the  introductory 
sentence  : — (1)  The  Volcano  as  a Neighbor.  (2)  Too  much  Help 
may  Hinder.  (3)  A Midsummer  Drought.  (4)  The  Eff'ects  of 
Rapid  Transit.  (5)  The  Invention  of  the  Telephone.  (6)  Wire- 
less Telegraphy. 

8.  Describe  a pomegranate,  or  a persimmon,  or  a fig,  by  com- 
paring it  to  something  like  itself,  and  contrasting  it  with  some- 
thing different.  Outline  your  paragraphs,  to  show  their  plan. 

9.  Describe  some  character  in  history  or  fiction  by  telling 
what  he  is  not. 

10.  AYrite  three  paragraphs,  contrasting  the  dust  and  din  of 
the  city  with  the  quiet  and  freshness  of  the  country. 

11.  Analyze  the  last  paragraph  in  “The  Old  Boat”  (p.  160). 
AA^hat  is  the  plan  on  which  it  is  constructed  ? 


372 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


12.  Find  in  the  extracts  quoted  in  this  book  examples  of  para- 
graphs (1)  which  give  examples ; (2)  which  compare  or  contrast 
subjects  ; (3)  which  show  the  effect  of  a cause  ; (4)  which  present 
details ; (5)  which  explain  by  showing  what  a thing  is  not. 

13.  Write  a paragraph,  attempting  to  prove  something  by 
denying  or  disproving  the  contrary.  Your  proposition  may  be 
‘‘  Regular  periods  of  rest  are  essential  to  health,”  or  Washington 
was  an  able  statesman  as  well  as  a devoted  patriot.” 

14.  Show  that  the  paragraphs  in  “The  Valley  of  the  Floss” 
(p.  177)  are  good  examples  of  unity. 

15.  Point  out  the  means  by  which  transition  is  secured  in 
paragraphs  1 and  2 of  the  “ Australian  Kangaroo  Hunt  ” (p.  201). 

16.  Write  a paragraph  composed  of  related  questions,  as  on 
page  204. 

17.  Make  topic  sentences  for  the  paragraphs  necessary  in 
writing  one  of  the  compositions  outlined  on  pages  73-76. 

18.  Show  how  the  outlines  on  pages  73-76  naturally  suggest 
division  into  paragraphs. 

19.  Make  a tabular  view  of  one  of  the  subjects  on  pages  73-76 
or  page  236,  supplying  subordinate  details. 

20.  Review  one  of  the  briefs  on  pages  258-60,  noting  the 
natural  division  into  paragraphs. 

21.  Construct  a paragraph  on  the  principle  of  the  climax. 

22.  Write  an  argument  on  one  of  the  subjects  named  on  page 

370.  Test  its  structure  by  asking  the  following  questions:  — 
(1)  Are  the  paragraphs  w^ell  proportioned  ? (2)  Do  they  follow 

a natural  or  logical  sequence  ? (3)  Is  each  paragraph  a unit  ? 

(4)  Are  the  transitions  smooth  and  easy  ? (5)  Are  the  statements 

clear?  cogent?  (6)  Is  the  emphasis  well  placed?  (7)  Are  the 
interrelations  of  the  paragraphs  perfectly  clear  ? 

23.  Prepare  a brief  for  an  essay  on  “ The  Advantages  of  Going 
Afoot.”  Attend  to  the  structure  and  arrangement  of  paragraphs. 

24.  Read  a short  essay  from  some  standard  author.  Report 
the  essay  in  outline  to  the  class.  What  does  the  essay  show  you 
about  paragraph  structure  ? 


EXERCISES. 


373 


STUDY  OF  THE  DICTIONARY. 

1.  Learn  all  that  the  Dictionary  can  tell  you  about  the  follow- 
ing words,  and  report  to  the  class : — dredge,  drift,  drop,  droop, 
elbow,  element,  emeritus,  emperor,  encore,  enunciate,  escalade, 
eschew,  estuary,  euphuism,  euphemism,  example,  extenuate,  fall, 
fast,  feint,  feudal,  find,  firm,  frame,  grate,  grocer,  gunwale,  haul, 
hansom,  heirloom,  herald,  comfort,  thorough,  favor,  liberal,  citizen, 
kingdom,  detach,  spasmodic,  countenance,  pheasant,  shrewd,  recipe, 
nostrum,  cadence,  category,  oriental,  plight,  quiz,  type,  weigh. 

2.  Prepare  to  answer  the  following  questions  in  an  oral  report 
to  the  class  : — 

What  does  the  Dictionary  teach  you  about  the  pronunciation 
of  words  ? Where  is  this  information  contained  ? 

What  signs  are  used  to  indicate  pronunciation?  Have  you 
mastered  the  diacritical  marks  ? Can  you  pronounce  a word  from 
its  diacritical  markings  ? 

Select  from  the  Dictionary  a number  of  words  with  their  dia- 
critical marks,  to  be  written  on  the  blackboard  as  a test  for  the 
other  pupils. 

3.  How  does  the  Dictionary  indicate  syllabication  and  accent 
of  words  ? Illustrate  for  the  class. 

4.  How  does  the  Dictionary  indicate  the  part  of  speech  to 
which  a word  belongs  ? Illustrate  for  the  class. 

If  a word  belongs  to  more  than  one  part  of  speech,  how  are 
the  definitions  arranged?  Illustrate. 

5.  What  does  the  Dictionary  show  concerning  the  derivation 
of  words  ? Explain  the  abbreviations  used  to  indicate  derivation. 

6.  When  several  meanings  of  a single  word  are  given  in  the 
Dictionary,  which  definition  should  you  select  ? 

7.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  quotations  and  examples  which 
are  given  in  an  unabridged  dictionary  ? Give  examples  to  show 
their  use. 

8.  Which  part  of  the  verb  is  included  in  the  dictionary  list? 
Does  the  Dictionary  help  you  to  .spell  other  forms  of  the  verb  ? 


374 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


WORDS  AND  SENTENCES. 

1.  Read  Rumpelstiltskin  ” (pp.  112-14),  in  order  to  answer 
the  following  questions : — (1)  What  words  do  you  find  in  the 
story  which  do  not  appear  in  your  ordinary  conversation  ? Make 
a list  of  these  words ; then  use  each  one  carefully  in  a sentence. 
(2)  Select  ten  words  for  which  you  can  substitute  longer  or  less 
familiar  synonyms.  Try  the  effect  of  each  synonym  in  the  sen- 
tence. (3)  For  what  audience  is  this  story  intended?  Show 
that  the  author  has  adapted  his  story  to  his  audience. 

2.  Use  in  sentences  of  your  own  the  following  words  from 
“Moses  and  the  Green  Spectacles''  (pp.  115-18):  — intention, 
persuaded,  prevail,  discreet,  prudence,  intrust,  commission,  waist- 
coat, bowling,  congratulate,  commendation,  importing,  assented, 
warrant,  passion,  blockhead,  sharper,  pretense. 

3.  Explain  the  use  of  the  following  words  which  occur  in 
“ Moses  and  the  Green  Spectacles  " : — higgles,  deal,  paces,  under- 
took, by  the  by,  shagreen,  murrain,  trumpery,  prowling. 

4.  Study  “ Moses  and  the  Green  Spectacles,"  observing  the 
specific  words  and  phrases  which  enter  into  the  descriptions. 
Write  the  words  in  lists,  showing  w^hich  are  nouns,  verbs,  adverbs, 
adjectives,  etc.  What  effect  is  produced  by  the  use  of  so  many 
specific  words  ? 

5.  Read  “ Lochinvar"  (pp.  118-19),  picking  out  the  figurative 
expressions  in  the  poem. 

6.  Study  the  adjectives  in  Grey's  “Australian  Superstition" 
(pp.  120-2).  Write  them  in  a list.  In  the  class,  be  prepared, 
with  the  other  pupils,  to  use  each  word  in  turn  in  an  impromptu 
sentence.  The  exercise  should  test  your  command  of  this 
vocabulary. 

7.  Make  a list  of  the  nouns  in  “ Australian  Superstition," 
using  them  as  in  the  previous  exercise. 

8.  Study  the  adjectives  used  in  “The  Valley  of  the  Floss" 
(p.  177).  Weigh  the  meaning  of  each  adjective,  as  you  read,  and 
see  what  it  contributes  to  your  thought  of  the  scene.  Which 


EXERCISES. 


375 


words  present  objects  to  your  eye  merely?  Which  words  stir 
some  feeling  ? Which  are  a contribution  from  the  author’s  feeling 
or  imagination  ? Are  these  words  plain  or  figurative  ? 

9.  Use  in  written  sentences  of  your  own  these  words  from 
Miss  Mitford’s  description  (pp.  161-2),  consulting  the  Dictionary 
when  you  are  in  doubt,  and  reporting  what  you  learn  about 
the  unfamiliar  words  : — avenue,  arching,  perspective,  cathedral, 
incrusted,  congelation,  hoar-frost,  defined,  uniform,  various,  fill- 
ing, satiating,  thrilling,  awfulness,  intense,  magnificent,  eminence, 
abruptly,  furze,  broom,  luxuriant,  hedgerows,  thyme,  holly,  pen- 
dent, bramble,  pollard,  rime,  tracery,  hip,  haw,  runlet,  trickles, 
transparent,  fantastic,  scudding,  gorgeous,  tropical,  mistrust, 
suspiciously,  glutton,  fine. 

10.  Distinguish  between  the  use  of  pretense  and  pretext;  pro- 
posal and  proposition ; motto  and  maxim ; quote  and  plagiarize ; 
claim  and  assert ; fiction  and  myth ; treachery  and  treason  ; courage 
and  fortitude;  economy  and  parsimony ; modest  and  hashful;  coax 
and  convince.  Use  each  pair  of  words  in  a sentence. 

11.  Study  the  words  and  phrases  which  are  used  in  each 
contrast  indicated  in  the  following  selection : — 

To  everything  there  is  a season,  and  a time  to  every  purpose  under  the 
heaven:  a time  to  be  born,  and  a time  to  die;  a time  to  plant,  and  a time 
to  pluck  up  that  which  is  planted ; a time  to  kill,  and  a time  to  heal ; a 
time  to  break  down,  and  a time  to  build  up;  a time  to  weep,  and  a time 
to  laugh;  a time  to  mourn,  and  a time  to  dance;  a time  to  cast  away 
stones,  and  a time  to  gather  stones  together ; a time  to  embrace,  and  a 
time  to  refrain  from  embracing ; a time  to  get,  and  a time  to  lose ; a time 
to  keep,  and  a time  to  cast  away ; a time  to  rend,  and  a time  to  sew ; a 
time  to  keep  silence,  and  a time  to  speak ; a time  to  love,  and  a time  to 
hate ; a time  of  war,  and  a time  of  peace.  — Ecclesiastes,  hi,  1-8. 

12.  Read  a paragraph  from  a standard  author.  Make  a list  of 
the  words  occurring  in  the  paragraph  which  you  do  not  ordinarily 
use  in  conversation.  Turn  to  the  Dictionary  and  study  the  defi- 
nition of  each  word.  Then  compose  sentences  in  which  the 
words  are  correctly  used. 


376 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


13.  Select  a paragraph  to  read  to  the  class.  After  the 
paragraph  has  been  read,  ask  different  members  of  the  class  to 
use  selected  words  in  sentences. 

14.  Let  each  member  of  the  class  select  ten  words  from  a well- 
known  book  or  from  a magazine  article  designated  by  the  teacher. 
These  words  are  to  be  brought  to  the  class.  As  each  word  is 
read,  a pupil  may  be  asked  to  use  it  at  once  in  an  appropriate 
sentence.  The  words  which  cannot  be  promptly  and  correctly 
used  should  be  written  on  the  board  for  study  by  the  class. 

15.  See  how  many  appropriate  adjectives  you  can  use  in 
describing  certain  familiar  objects  or  scenes : as,  — an  oak  tree, 
a procession,  a family  at  home,  the  school  yard  at  recess,  market 
day,  a Fourth-bf-July  procession,  etc. 

16.  Select  a paragraph  from  some  standard  author  and  care- 
fully study  the  words  used  in  the  paragraph.  Decide  whether 
they  are  appropriate  or  otherwise.  See  how  they  are  used,  and 
state  the  thought  in  another  way,  using  other  w^ords. 

17.  Make  a list  of  the  names  of  twenty-five  common  things 
(as,  pieces  of  furniture,  utensils,  tools,  etc.),  and,  wdth  the  help 
of  the  Dictionary,  find  the  derivation  of  the  names  in  your  list. 
See  from  what  language  they  have  come  into  English,  and  report 
what  you  have  learned  to  the  class. 

18.  Bring  to  the  class  a newspaper  paragraph  which  seems  to 
you  carelessly  written,  and  suggest  w^ords  or  phrases  which  will 
better  express  the  thought  of  the  paragraph. 

19.  Substitute  general  for  specific  words  in  The  Story  of  a 
Fire”  (pp.  10-11),  and  observe  the  effect. 

20.  Use  the  following  general  and  specific  words  in  sentences, 
and  compare  the  effect  of  the  contrasted  terms:  — went,  sped; 
tree,  plum  tree ; child,  barefoot  boy ; man,  farmer ; house,  cot- 
tage ; city,  Chicago ; sound,  hum,  whirr,  shriek,  whistle ; insect, 
butterfly,  bee,  mosquito. 

21.  Use  the  following  words  in  sentences  which  illustrate  the 
difference  in  the  meaning  of  the  words  : — (1)  abbreviate,  abridge, 
contract;  (2)  prohibit,  abolish,  annihilate;  (3)  arbitrary,  despotic. 


EXERCISES. 


377 


tyrannical;  (4)  forgive,  pardon,  acquit;  (5)  accident,  chance, 
misfortune;  (6)  companion,  comrade,  friend;  (7)  luxurious, 
luxuriant ; (8)  imperious,  imperative ; (9)  near,  neighboring, 

next;  (10)  adorn,  garnish,  decorate  ; (11)  appearance,  demeanor, 
mien;  (12)  equal,  equivalent ; (13)  foreign,  alien  ; (14)  mitigate, 
alleviate;  (15)  niggardly,  avaricious,  covetous;  (16)  awful,  dis- 
agreeable ; (17)  annoying,  horrid ; (18)  beach,  coast,  brink, 

strand;  (19)  pretty,  beautiful,  handsome,  picturesque;  (20)  bit- 
ter, pungent,  caustic  ; (21)  noisy,  boisterous,  turbulent ; (22)  sin- 
cere, transparent,  aboveboard ; (23)  cause,  occasion ; (24)  select, 
prefer ; (25)  class,  clique,  coterie,  set ; (26)  deception,  craft, 
hypocrisy. 

22.  Read  Sir  John  Lubbock’s  explanation  of  a regular  flower 
(p.  203).  Make  a list  of  all  the  technical  words  which  occur  in 
the  selection.  Study  the  use  of  each  word.  See  if  you  can  sub- 
stitute more  familiar  words  or  phrases  without  loss  of  clearness 
or  definiteness. 

23.  Make  a list  of  the  technical  words  used  in  Professor  Goss’s 
comparison  of  a stationary  and  a locomotive  engine  (pp.  207-9). 
Bring  your  list  to  the  class,  to  compare  with  the  lists  made  by 
other  pupils.  Discuss  the  selection,  considering  the  meaning  and 
use  of  each  technical  word  in  its  place. 

24.  Describe  a boat  race,  using  technical  terms. 

Rewrite  your  description,  omitting  all  words  which  would  be 
unintelligible  to  a person  who  knows  very  little  of  the  construc- 
tion and  management  of  boats. 

Read  both  descriptions  in  the  class,  for  comparison  and  criticism. 

25.  Explain  the  meaning  of  the  following  words  used  in  the 
description  of  buildings  : — colonnade,  fresco,  dome,  fagade,  arch, 
court,  peristyle,  vault,  cloister,  porch,  tower,  column,  rotunda, 
spire,  arcade,  .cornice,  pediment,  cupola,  portico,  turret. 

26.  Define  the  technical  words  which  are  italicized  in  the 
following  sentences : — 

Another  remarkable  result  of  the  migration  of  the  doldrum  belt  is 
seen  in  the  change  in  the  direction  of  the  trade  winds  when  they  cross  the 


378 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


geographic  equator  on  the  way  to  the  heat  equator.  The  northeast  trade 
is  extended  into  a northwest  wind  in  the  southern  summer,  the  southeast 
trade  into  a southwest  wind  in  the  northern  summer.  Thus  on  both 
sides  of  the  equator,  in  the  narrow  suh -equatorial  belts  where  this  relation 
appears,  the  winds  alternately  blow  from  opposite  directions  as  the  seasons 
change.  Winds  of  this  kind  are  called  monsoons. — William  M.  Davis, 
* ‘ Physical  Geography . ’ ’ 

27.  Observe  the  work  of  a carpenter  or  a mason. 

Report  what  you  have  seen,  using  the  technical  names  for  the 
tools,  materials,  and  processes  which  you  describe. 

28.  Describe  a door  which  you  have  carefully  observed.  Use 
the  appropriate  technical  terms  which  are  required  to  make  your 
description  accurate. 

29 . Make  a list  of  technical  terms  used  in  the  occupation  with 
which  you  are  most  familiar  (farming,  ship-building,  housekeep- 
ing, etc.).  Be  prepared  to  define  any  word  in  your  list. 

30.  Make  a list  of  at  least  ten  slang  phrases  which  have 
originated  in  borrowed  technical  terms.  Example:  — ‘‘You  are 
off  on  a side-track.’’  Explain  the  origin  of  each  expression  in 
your  list. 

31.  In  the  following  phrases  or  sentences  you  will  find  words 
which  are  used  in  a figurative  sense. 

Use  these  words  in  sentences.  Then  try  to  express  the  same 
thought  without  figures  of  speech. 

(1)  Murmuring  pines.  .The  wail  of  the  forest.  (3)  Gos- 
siping looms.  (4)  His  thought  ripened  into  action.  (5)  The 
leaden  air  was  oppressive.  (6)  Silence  reigned  in  the  household. 
(7)  The  fire  was  gone  from  his  eye.  (8)  The  ocean  flew  from 
the  shore.  (9)  These  were  the  waifs  of  the  tide.  (10)  The 
moon  climbs  the  crystal  wall  of  heaven.  (11)  A golden  day 
redeems  a weary  year.  (12)  He  answered  with  a vacant  stare. 
(13)  I know  the  hunger  and  thirst  of  the  spirit.  (14)  This  is  a 
shipwrecked  nation.  (15)  He  saw  a towering  oak.  (16)  A day 
in  the  opening  spring.  (17)  The  friendly  streets  looked  just  as 
they  looked  when  he  was  a boy.  (18)  He  returned  from  the 
fruitless  search.  (19)  She  wrung  a scant  subsistence  from  her 


EXERCISES. 


379 


toil.  (20)  He  was  lost  in  thought  (21)  He  strove  to  win 
the  palm.  (22)  This  position  was  the  goal  of  his  ambition. 
(23)  The  news  flew  from  village  to  village.  (24)  His  son  is  the 
staff  of  his  declining  years.  (25)  He  is  steeped  in  forgetfulness. 
(26)  The  bird  wheeled  in  the  air.  (27)  Prune  your  thoughts. 
(28)  Xesbit  was  spurred  to  action. 

32.  In  the  poems  on  pages  168-70  pick  out  ten  examples  of  fig- 
ures of  speech. 

33.  Make  a paraphrase  of  the  poem  on  page  170  in  prose,  and 
see  whether  the  figures  from  the  poetry  will  fit  naturally  into  the 
prose. 

34.  Study  the  descriptive  words  and  phrases  in  Lowell’s 
Vision  of  Sir  Launfal.”  Select  from  the  poem  words  which 

do  not  ordinarily  occur  in  your  own  vocabulary,  and  use  them  in 
suitable  sentences. 

35.  Bring  to  the  class  fifteen  simple  figurative  expressions. 
Substitute  non-figurative  words,  and  compare  the  effect. 

36.  Explain  the  figures  of  speech  in  the  following  passages  : — 

(1)  Northward  he  turneth  through  a little  door. 

And  scarce  three  steps,  ere  music’s  golden  tongue 
Flattered  to  tears  this  aged  man  and  poor. 

(2)  Oaths  are  straws,  men’s  faiths  are  wafer-cakes. 

(3)  Now  all  the  youth  of  England  are  on  fire. 

(4)  His  foes  are  so  enrooted  with  his  friends 
That,  plucking  to  unfix  an  enemy. 

He  doth  unfasten  so  and  shake  a friend. 

(5)  Avaunt ! Begone  ! thou  hast  set  me  on  the  rack. 

(6)  As  many  arrows,  loosed  several  ways. 

Come  to  one  mark  ; as  many  ways  meet  in  one  turn  ; 

As  many  fresh  streams  meet  in  one  salt  sea ; 

As  many  lines  close  in  the  dial’s  centre ; 

So  many  a thousand  actions,  once  afoot. 

End  in  one  purpose,  and  be  all  well  borne 
Without  defeat. 

(7)  Great  Nature  spoke;  observant  man  obeyed. 


380 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


IMPROPRIETIES. 

The  correct  meanings  of  words  are  settled  by  good  use  (p.  304); 
violations  of  correctness  are  known  as  improprieties. 

To  THE  Teacher.  — Improprieties  are  best  studied  when  occasion 
arises,  — that  is,  when  they  are  observed  in  the  pupil’s  writing  or  speak- 
ing. The  word  that  is  misused  should  be  looked  up  in  an  unabridged 
dictionary,  and  the  illustrdHive  quotations  noted ; then  the  pupil  should 
be  required  to  use  it  and  its  synonyms  in  a number  of  original  sentences. 
The  exercises  that  follow  are  not  intended  to  be  studied  in  bulk,  but  rather 
to  serve  as  indications  of  the  commonest  violations  of  good  usage. 

1.  Define  the  verb  claim.  Study  its  correct  use  in  the  following 
sentences.  Observe  also  the  correct  use  of  allege^  assert^  maintain, 
hold.  How  does  claim  differ  from  these  verbs  in  meaning  ? 

The  son  clawied  his  father’s  property. 

The  stranger  claims  to  be  a person  of  consequence. 

A day  will  come  when  York  shall  claim  his  own. 

This  prince  hath  neither  claimed  it  nor  deserved  it. 

The  Duke  of  Suffolk  is  the  first,  and  claims  to  be  high  steward. 

Of  these  am  I,  who  thy  protection  claim. 

He  asserts  that  he  has  been  injured. 

He  declares  that  there  is  no  help  for  it. 

How  can  you  inaintain  that  this  Plato  was  not  Aristotle’s  teacher  ? 

It  was  alleged  by  their  enemies  that  they  refused  to  take  the  oaths  to 
the  government. 

I hold  they  are  not  worth  a dollar. 

It  has  been  repeatedly  affirmed  by  the  learned  that  opium  is  a dusky 
brown  in  color. 

2.  Study  Jix,  adjust,  repair  as  in  Exercise  1.  The  words  are 
correctly  used  in  the  following  sentences : — 

He  fixed  his  eye  on  the  target. 

He  fixed  the  stake  in  the  ground. 

The  man  adjusted  his  cravat. 

I do  not  know  how  to  repair  my  bicycle. 

3.  To  allude  to  a thing  is  not  the  same  as  to  mention  it  or  to 
refer  to  it.  An  allusion  is  an  indirect  reference  that  suggests  the 
subject  without  mentioning  it  distinctly.  Thus,  — 


EXERCISES. 


asi 


When  he  spoke  of  the  effective  mixture  of  comedy  and  tragedy  in  the 
Elizabethan  drama,  he  was  doubtless  alluding  to  Shakspere,  but  he  took 
care  not  to  mention  him ; he  did  not  even  refer  to  any  one  of  his  plays  by 
name. 

Use  these  words  correctly  in  sentences  of  your  own. 

4.  Study  the  following  groups  of  words  as  in  Exercise  1 : — 
testimony,  verdict ; team,  vehicle,  carriage ; lie,  lay ; sit,  set ; 
vertical,  perpendicular ; demean,  degrade ; notorious,  notable ; 
healthy,  healthful,  wholesome ; tang,  twang ; love,  like ; depre- 
cate, depreciate ; impute,  impugn ; luxurious,  luxuriant ; calcu- 
late, intend  ; purpose,  propose  ; transpire,  occur ; affect,  effect. 

5.  Study  the  following  groups  of  words  in  the  same  way:  — 
liable,  likely  ; plead,  argue  ; invent,  discover ; historic,  historical ; 
fire,  throw ; learn,  teach ; teacher,  professor ; among,  between ; 
quite,  somewhat ; definite,  definitive ; without,  unless ; person, 
party ; bring,  fetch,  carry ; settle,  pay. 

6.  Study  the  following  groups  in  the  same  way:  — peer, 
paragon ; less,  fewer ; posted,  informed ; fine,  grand ; clever, 
good-tempered ; guess,  think ; lovely,  pretty ; practical,  practica- 
ble ; awfully,  very ; ugly,  cross ; right,  just ; name,  mention ; 
intelligible,  intelligent ; agree  with,  agree  to ; change  for,  change 
with;  disappoint  in,  disappoint  of;  differ  with,  differ  from; 
confide  in,  confide  to ; correspond  with,  correspond  to ; part 
from,  part  with ; compare  to,  comi)are  with. 

The  words  in  each  of  the  following  groups  are  worth  studying  with 
reference  to  distinction  of  meaning.  In  some  of  these  groups  an  inter- 
change of  the  words  would  be  a gross  violation  of  correctness ; in  others, 
usage  allows  it.  In  every  case,  however,  the  pupil  will  find  it  useful  to 
know  the  distinctions  that  may  be  made. 

Hypothesis,  hypothecation ; right,  duty,  privilege,  prerogative ; estop, 
prevent  (p.  317) ; fear,  apprehend ; reverent,  reverend ; exploit  (verb), 
display;  proud,  haughty;  truth,  honesty;  stay,  stop;  common,  vulgar; 
mad,  angry;  criticism,  censure;  copy,  counterpart;  restive,  restless; 
confuse,  confound;  shop,  store;  ask,  demand;  give,  bequeath;  leave, 
depart,  go  away;  prominent,  conspicuous,  distinguished;  road,  street; 
ride,  drive;  idle,  lazy;  loiter,  saunter;  confess,  acknowledge;  old, 
ancient,  antique,  venerable ; strange,  queer,  odd,  quaint,  funny,  weird ; 


382 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


guess,  reckon,  calculate,  consider,  allow,  think  (p.  312) ; expect,  suspect, 
suppose ; tragedy,  murder,  homicide ; house,  home,  residence ; atheist, 
deist,  skeptic,  infidel;  frank,  candid,  blunt,  plainspoken;  pretty,  hand- 
some, beautiful ; ubiquitous,  omnipresent ; college,  university,  school ; 
see,  witness;  friend,  acquaintance;  trade,  business,  profession,  occupa- 
tion, vocation;  attorney,  barrister,  counsel,  lawyer;  square,  rectangular, 
oblong ; robber,  thief ; bravery,  fortitude,  boldness ; cowardice,  timidity ; 
piteous,  pitiful,  pitiable,  compassionate,  sympathetic;  responsive,  respon- 
sible; sophistry,  fallacy;  fortnightly,  biweekly;  human,  mortal;  poison- 
ous, venomous ; perspicuous,  perspicacious ; wise,  learned ; artist,  artisan ; 
engine,,  locomotive ; act,  bill ; partly,  partially ; whole,  all ; mother-in-law, 
stepmother;  hail,  address,  accost;  advise,  recommend;  nice,  agreeable, 
attractive;  aggravate,  exasperate;  antagonize,  oppose. 


APPENDIX. 


COMMON  EERORS  IN  ORAL  AND  WRITTEN 
COMPOSITION. 

Violation  of  the  rules  of  grammar  proclaims  the  unlettered 
writer  or  speaker.  Since  our  use  of  language  is  largely  deter- 
mined by  imitation,  errors  often  repeated  by  others  may  slip  into 
our  own  speech.  Grammar  is  treated  in  ‘‘  The  Mother  Tongue,” 
Book  II,  to  which  reference  may  be  made  if  necessary.  What 
follows  is  merely  a summary  convenient  for  reference.  Debat- 
able constructions,  in  which  either  of  two  forms  is  allowed  by 
good  usage,  are  purposely  omitted. 

1.  Without  should  not  be  used  in  the  sense  of  unless,  nor  like 
in  the  sense  of  as.  The  following  sentences  are  correct : — 

You  cannot  do  that  unless  I help  you.  [Not : without  I help  you.] 

You  cannot  do  that  without  me. 

He  acted  like  a madman. 

I do  not  sew  as  you  do.  [Not:  like  you  do.] 

2.  The  superlative  degree  should  not  be  used  for  the  compar- 
ative. The  comparative  degree  refers  to  one  of  two  objects  or 
groups  of  objects;  the  superlative,  to  one  of  three  or  more  objects 
or  groups  of  objects. 

3.  Either  and  neither  should  not  be  used  in  place  of  aiuj. 
Either  and  neither  are  used  in  referring  to  one  of  two : any  or 
any  one  in  referring  to  one  of  three  or  more. 

4.  Sort  and  kind  should  be  preceded  by  the  singular  demon- 
strative and  not  by  the  plural.  Thus,  — this  sort,  or  kind,”  not 
these  ; that  sort,  or  kind,”  not  those. 

383 


384 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


5.  The  article  should  not  be  inserted  in  a phrase  which 
depends  upon  kind  or  sort.  We  should  say  “this  kind  of  boy,” 
not  “ this  kind  of  a boy  ” ; “ this  manner  of  person,”  not  “ this 
manner  of  a person”;  “this  sort  of  thing,”  not  “this  sort  of  a 
thing.” 

6.  The  case  forms  of  pronouns  should  conform  to  the  gram- 
matical structure  of  the  sentence.  Thus,  in  the  subject  con- 
struction, “ You  and  / did  it”;  “ We  boys  are  going  to  town,” 
etc.  In  the  predicate  nominative  (or  attribute),  — “ It  was  I 
Qie^  she,  etc.),”  not  me,  him,  her;  “If  you  were  /,”  not  me;  in 
the  objective  case  after  a preposition,  — “It  is  between  you  and 
me  ” ; “ He  sent  for  John  and  me.'' 

We  know  the  culprit  to  be  him.  [Objective,  agreeing  with  culprit,  the 
subject  of  the  infinitive.] 

We  know  that  the  culprit  is  he.  [Predicate  nominative  or  attribute.] 

The  culprit  was  known  to  be  he.  [Predicate  nominative  or  attri- 
bute.] 

I felt  sure  of  its  being  he.  [Predicate  nominative  or  attribute ; com- 
pare, — I felt  sure  that  it  was  he.'] 

She  is  taller  than  I.  [That  is,  — than  I am.  Hence  the  nominative.] 

7.  The  genitive  (possessive)  case  of  the  noun  or  pronoun 
should  be  used  before  the  verbal  noun  in  -ing.  Thus,  — 

I was  sure  of  its  being  he.  [Not:  it.] 

I heard  of  tTohn’s  being  elected.  [Not : John.] 

8.  Their  should  not  refer  back  to  a singular  noun  or  pro- 
noun. Thus,  — 

Every  pupil  should  bring  own  book.  [Not:  their.] 

Each  one  of  us  has /lis  own  troubles.  [Not:  their  ov  our.] 

9.  In  such  sentences  as  the  following,  his  is  correct,^  but  not 
always  graceful : — 

Every  boy  and  girl  should  attend  to  his  own  lesson.  [Their  would  be 
wrong ; his  or  her  may  be  used  if  the  distinction  of  gender  is  important.] 

1 In  such  sentences,  his  may  be  regarded  as  of  common  gender.  The 
construction  may  often  be  avoided  by  using  a noun  like  person,  pupil,  or 
the  like,  which  applies  to  both  genders. 


COMMON  ERRORS. 


385 


10.  Who  and  whom  should  be  carefully  distinguished  in  con- 
struction. Thus,  — 

The  man  who  hesitates  is  lost.  [Subject  of  hesitates.] 

The  man  whom  you  met  is  my  brother.  [Object  of  met.] 

Who  is  that  odd-looking  person?  [Subject  of  is.] 

Whom  do  you  wish  to  see  ? [Object  of  see.] 

Whom  did  you  refer  to?  [Object  of  to.]'^ 

Who  do  you  think  I am?  [Predicate  nominative  (attribute),  in  the 
same  case  as  /.] 

Whom  do  you  take  me  to  be?  [Predicate  objective  in  the  same  case  as 
me.] 

11.  Avoid  the  use  of  and  which  when  a relative  construction 
does  not  precede.  The  following  sentence  is  ungrammatical : — 

He  gave  me  a number  of  flowers  of  great  beauty  and  which  had  rarely 
been  found  in  that  region.  [The  construction  demands  — which  were  of 
great  beauty  and  which;  otherwise  the  conjunction  joins  incongruous 
constructions.] 

The  same  error  is  common  with  hut  which. 

The  ungrammatical  use  of  and  which  is  very  common,  and  occurs  in 
good  authors.  It  should  be  avoided,  however  : for,  even  if  it  is  defensi- 
ble on  the  ground  of  usage,  it  is  always  ungraceful. 

12.  After  look,  sound,  taste,  smell,  feel,  an  adjective  is  used  to 
describe  the  subject.  Thus,  — 

She  looks  beautiful.  [Not : looks  beautifully.] 

The  bells  sound  Aars/i.  [Not:  sound  harshly.] 

My  luncheon  tastes  good.  [Not : tastes  well.] 

The  flowers  smell  sweet.  [Not : smell  sweetly.] 

Velvet  feels  smoo^/i.  [Not:  feels  smoothly.] 

“ I feel  well,''  is  correct,  for  u^ell  is  an  adjective  in  this  use. 

^ “ To  ivhom  did  you  refer?”  is  often  preferred,  but  this  order  is  too 
formal  for  habitual  use  in  ordinary  conversation.  The  best  writers  use 
the  less  formal  order  freely,  despite  the  objection  of  some  rhetoricians. 
The  preposition  at  the  end  of  the  clause  or  sentence  sometimes,  but  not 
always,  produces  an  awkward  effect.  No  rule  can  be  laid  down. 


386 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


13.  In  the  First  Person  sJiall^  not  will^  is  the  auxiliary  of  the 
Future  Tense  in  both  assertions  and  questions.  It  denotes  simple 
futurity,  without  expressing  willingness,  desire,  or  determination.^ 

Will  in  the  First  Person  is  used  in  promising,  threatening, 
consenting,  and  expressing  resolution.  It  never  denotes  simple 
futurity. 

I will  give  you  a thousand  dollars  to  do  this.  [Promise.] 

I will  shoot  the  first  man  that  runs.  [Threat.] 

I will  accompany  you,  since  you  wish  it.  [Consent.] 

I will  fight  it  out  on  this  line  if  it  takes  all  summer.  [Resolution.] 

ril  and  we'll  stand  for  / will  and  we  will,  and  are  proper  only 
when  I will  and  we  will  would  be  correct.  They  can  never  stand 
for  I shall  and  ive  shall. 

The  use  of  will  for  shall  in  the  first  person  of  the  future  is  a 
common  but  gross  error.  Thus,  — 

We  will  all  die  some  day.  [Wrong,  unless  what  one  means  is  ‘‘We  are 
determined  to  die.”  Say:  “Wes/iaZ/.”] 

I will  he  glad  to  help  you.  [Say : “ I shall  be  glad.”] 

Such  expressions  as  I shall  he  glad,  I shall  he  willing,  I shall  he 
charmed  to  do  this,  express  willingness  not  by  means  of  shall  but  in  the 
adjectives  glad,  willing,  charmed.  To  say  “I  will  he  glad  to  do  this,” 
then,  would  be  wrong,  for  it  would  be  to  express  volition  twice.  Such  a 
sentence  could  only  mean  “ I am  determined  to  be  glad  to  do  this.” 

14.  In  the  Second  Person  shall  you  ? not  ivill  you  ? is  the  proper 
form  of  the  Future  Tense  in  questions. 

Will  you  f always  denotes  willingness,  consent,  or  determina- 
tion, and  never  simple  futurity. 


I.  Future  Tense  (simple  futurity). 

Shall  you  vote  for  Jackson  ? [That  is.  Are  you  going  to  vote  for  him 
as  a matter  of  fact  ?] 

Shall  you  try  to  win  the  prize  ? 

Shall  you  go  to  Paris  in  June  or  in  July? 

^Nos.  13-15  are  from  “ The  Mother  Tongue,”  Book  II,  pp.  242-3. 


COMMON  ERRORS. 


387 


II.  Verb-phrase  denoting  Willingness,  etc. 

Will  you  lend  me  ten  dollars  as  a favor  ? 

Will  you  try  to  write  better  ? 

Will  you  insist  on  this  demand  ? 

15.  Shall  in  the  second  and  third  persons  is  not  the  sign  of  the 
future  tense  in  declarative  sentences. 

It  is  used  in  commanding,  promising,  threatening,  and  express- 
ing resolution,  the  volition  being  that  of  the  speaker.  Thus,  — 

Thou  shall  not  steal.  [Command.] 

You  shall  have  a dollar  if  you  run  this  errand.  [Promise.] 

You  shall  he  punished  if  you  defy  me.  [Threat.] 

He  shall  he  punished  if  he  defies  me.  [Threat.] 

You  shall  never  see  him  again.  [Determination.] 

He  shall  leave  the  house  instantly.  [Determination.] 

16.  In  indirect  discourse  shall  and  should  are  used  when  they 
would  have  been  used  in  direct  statement.  Thus,  — 

He  declares  that  he  shall  die  if  he  is  not  helped.  [Direct : I shall  die.] 
He  declared  that  he  should  die  if  he  were  not  helped.  [Direct:  I shalLI 
You  say  you  should  like  to  see  him.  [Direct;  I should  like.] 

I promised  that  the  money  should  he  ready.  [Direct : The  money  shall 
be  ready.] 

Thomson  says  that  he  not  pay  this  bill.  [Direct:  1 will  not.'] 

You  promised  that  you  would  help  me.  [Direct : I will.] 

17.  The  tenses  of  the  subordinate  clauses  of  a complex  sentence 
and  of  dependent  relatives  must  be  adjusted  to  the  tense  of  the 
principal  verb,  and  to  the  meaning  of  the  sentence. 

Inserting  a definite  adverb  or  adverbial  phrase  of  time  will 
often  help  you  to  decide  which  tense  you  should  use. 

In  the  sentence  “ They  learned  that  a stitch  in  time  saves 
nine,”  if  you  mean  that  they  learned  the  general  truth  that  a 
stitch  in  time  saves  nine,  saves  is  correct.  If  you  refer  to  one  past 
instance  only,  you  should  use  saved. 

“I  thought  that  he  ought  to  have  done  it”  and  “I  thought  that  he 
ought  to  do  it”  are  both  correct;  but  they  are  not  interchangeable,  since 
they  convey  different  ideas. 


388 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


18.  Words  necessary  to  the  construction  must  not  be  omitted. 

I have  not  done,  it  and  I will  not  do  it.  [Not : I have  not,  and  I will  not 
do  it.] 

a.  In  written  language,  sentences  should  not  end  with  the 
sign  of  the  infinitive.  Thus,  — I could  learn  in  an 
hour  all  that  I cared  to  might  pass  in  conversation, 
but  it  is  not  accurate  enough  for  written  language. 
‘‘  All  that  I cared  to  learn”  would  properly  complete 
the  sentence. 

h.  In  a long  sentence,  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  predi- 
cate verb  is  actually  omitted,  on  account  of  the  trail- 
ing dependent  clauses  which  arrest  the  thought  of 
the  speaker  or  writer.  Be  sure  that  you  can  instantly 
point  out  the  main  clause,  with  its  subject  and  its  verb, 
in  every  sentence  that  you  write.  If  you  hesitate,  it 
is  a sign  that  your  sentence  needs  to  be  rewritten. 

c.  Omission  of  the  subject  should  be  restricted  to  the  tele- 
graphic style.  ‘‘  Yours  received.  Ought  to  have 
written  before.  Will  send  the  goods  immediately,” 
is  too  curt  to  be  either  polite  or  elegant. 

19.  The  participle,  being  grammatically  an  adjective,  must 
belong  to  a substantive  expressed  in  the  sentence. 

I sent  yon  back  the  “ Quarterly  ” without  perusal,  having  resolved  to 
read  no  more  reviews.  [Not:  The  “Quarterly”  was  sent  back  without 
perusal,  having  resolved  to  read  no  more  reviews.] 

A few  participles  may  be  idiomatically  used  without  a noun  in  agree- 
ment. Such  are  considering^  regarding^  concerning,,  owing  to,  which  are 
practically  prepositions.  Speaking  is  also  used  independently  in  a few 
phrases:  as,  — “generally  speaking,'’  “strictly  speaking."  Supposing 
is  also  defensible,  but  suppose  is  neater. 

Due  to  should  not  be  used  for  owing  to  in  such  a sentence  as  the  follow- 
ing:— “ Owing  to  the  severe  weather,  observations  could  not  be  taken.” 

20.  The  verb  should  agree  with  its  subject  in  person  and 
number.  To  avoid  error,  keep  the  subject  clearly  in  mind  in 
every  sentence.  Take  care  that  the  verb  is  not  so  widely  sep- 
arated from  the  subject  that  the  connection  is  lost. 


COMMON  ERRORS. 


389 


a.  'When  the  subject  may  be  regai'ded  as  either  singular 
or  plural,  the  same  construction  should  be  maintained 
throughout  the  passage.  In  every  sentence  which 
has  for  its  subject  a collective  noun,  be  on  your 
guard  against  any  change  of  number  either  in  the 
verb  or  in  pronouns  referring  to  the  subject. 
h.  A <<  compound  subject,’’  composed  of  nouns  or  pronouns 
connected  by  and,  or,  or  nor,  demands  careful  atten- 
tion to  the  verb.  When  the  parts  of  the  subject 
are  joined  by  or  or  nor,  the  verb  is  singular.  When 
they  are  joined  by  and,  the  verb  is  almost  always 
plural. 

c.  Difficulties  in  the  use  of  compound  subjects  may  some- 
times be  obviated  by  the  use  of  with  or  as  well  as. 
Thus,  — Night  air,  together  with  draughts,  is  the 
bugbear  of  fearful  patients.”  Note  that  the  singular 
is  the  only  defensible  form  in  this  case. 

21.  Modifying  words  and  phrases  should  be  so  placed  that 
there  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  word  they  modify.  If  there  is 
any  doubt,  the  sentence  should  be  rearranged  or  rewritten. 

A horse  having  a beautiful  tail  and  mane  stood  at  the  post.  [Not:  A 
horse  stood  at  the  post  having  a beautiful  tail  and  mane.] 

22.  Pronouns  should  be  so  used  that  there  can  be  no  doubt  to 
what  person  or  thing  each  refers.  If  there  is  any  doubt,  it  is 
always  better  to  insert  another  word  or  to  rearrange  the  sentence. 

The  doctor  told  his  brother  that  the  latter  could  not  go  out  on  account 
of  the  rain.  Or, — 

The  doctor,  speaking  to  his  brother,  said,  “ I cannot  go  out  on  account 
of  the  weather.”  [Not:  The  doctor  told  his  brother  that  he  could  not  go 
out  on  account  of  the  weather.] 

23.  Only  should  be  so  placed  in  the  sentence  that  there  can  be 
no  doubt  what  word  or  phrase  it  modifies. 

“My  sister  and  I go  only  to  concerts  in  the  evening,”  means  that  we 
go  nowhere  else. 


390 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


“ Only  my  sister  and  I go  to  concerts  in  the  evening,”  means  that  no 
one  else  in  the  family  goes. 

“My  sister  and  I go  to  concerts  in  the  evening  only,”  means  that  we 
do  not  go  in  the  daytime. 

Good  usage  does  not  fix  absolutely  the  position  of  onli/  with  respect 
to  the  word  that  it  modifies.  There  is  hut  one  safe  rule:  — “Shun 
ambiguity.”  If  this  is  observed,  the  pupil  may  feel  secure. 

24.  An  adverb  should  not  be  placed  between  the  infinitive  and 
its  sign  (to).  The  following  sentences  are  correct : — 

It  is  my  wish  never  to  see  him  again. 

The  antelope  began  to  run  swiftly  across  the  plain.  [Not:  The  ante- 
lope began  to  swiftly  run  across  the  plain.] 

The  “ split  infinitive  ” is  sometimes  used  by  good  writers ; but  it  is  not 
authorized  by  the  general  usage  of  the  best  authors. 

25.  The  article  or  the  possessive  should  be  repeated  with  two 
or  more  connected  nouns  or  adjectives  whenever  clearness  or  pre- 
cision requires  it.  Thus,  — 

I will  confer  with  the  secretary  and  the  treasurer. 

In  such  sentences  as  the  following  no  repetition  is  necessary, 
since  no  confusion  is  possible : — 

I will  ask  all  the  boys  and  girls  in  my  class. 

He  was  very  fond  of  his  father  and  mother. 

When  you  are  in  doubt,  however,  it  is  safer  to  repeat. 

Hard-and-fast  rules  calling  for  the  repetition  in  sentences  like  those 
just  quoted  are  common  in  text-books  but  not  justified  by  good  usage. 

When  the  second  noun  is  followed  by  a modifier  which  does 
not  belong  to  the  first,  the  article  or  pronoun  should  be  repeated, 
for  clearness.  Thus, — 

I have  little  doubt  but  that,  if  an  arm  or  leg  could  have  been  taken  off 
with  as  little  pain  as  attends  the  amputation  of  a curl  or  a lock  of  hair,  the 
natural  limb  would  have  been  thought  less  becoming,  or  less  convenient, 
by  some  men,  than  a wooden  one,  and  have  been  disposed  of  accordingly, 
— COWPER. 


CAPITAL  LETTERS. 


391 


USE  OF  CAPITAL  LETTERS. 

1.  Every  sentence  begins  with  a capital  letter. 

2.  Every  line  of  poetry  begins  with  a capital  letter. 

3.  The  first  word  of  every  direct  quotation  begins  with  a 
capital  letter. 

Note.  — This  rule  does  not  apply  to  quoted  fragments  of  sentences. 

4.  Every  proper  noun  or  abbreviation  of  a proper  noun  begins 
with  a capital  letter. 

5.  Most  adjectives  derived  from  proper  nouns  begin  with 
capital  letters;  as, — American,  Indian,  Swedish,  Spenserian, 

Note.  — Some  adjectives  derived  from  proper  nouns  have  ceased  to  be 
closely  associated  in  thought  with  the  nouns  from  which  they  come,  and 
therefore  begin  with  small  letters.  Thus,  — voltaic,  galvanic,  mesmeric, 
maudlin,  stentorian. 

6.  Every  title  attached  to  the  name  of  a person  begins  with 
a capital  letter. 

7.  In  titles  of  books,  etc.,  the  first  word,  as  well  as  every 
important  word  that  follows,  begins  with  a capital  letter. 

8.  The  interjection  0 and  the  pronoun  I are  always  written 
in  capital  letters. 

9.  Personal  pronouns  referring  to  the  Deity  are  often 
capitalized. 

Note.  — Usage  varies:  the  personal  pronouns  are  commonly  capital- 
ized, the  relatives  less  frequently.  The  rule  is  often  disregarded  altogether 
when  its  observance  would  result  in  a multitude  of  capitals;  so  in  the 
Bible  and  in  many  hymn  books  and  works  of  theology. 

10.  Common  nouns  and  adjectives  often  begin  with  capital 
letters  when  they  designate  the  topics  or  main  points  of  defini- 
tions or  similar  statements.  Such  capitals  are  called  emphatic 
(or  topical)  capitals. 

Note.  — Emphatic  (or  topical)  capitals  are  analogous  to  capitals  in  the 
titles  of  books  (see  Rule  7),  but  their  use  is  not  obligatory.  They  are 
especially  common  in  text-books  and  other  elementary  manuals. 


392 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


RULES  OF  PUNCTUATION.! 

The  common  marks  of  punctuation  are  the  period,  the  interro- 
gation point,  the  exclamation  point,  the  comma,  the  semicolon, 
the  colon,  the  dash,  marks  of  parenthesis,  and  quotation  marks. 
The  hyphen  and  the  apostrophe  may  be  conveniently  treated 
along  with  marks  of  punctuation. 


I. 

1.  The  period,  the  interrogation  point,  and  the  exclamation 
point  are  used  at  the  end  of  sentences.  Every  complete  sentence 
must  be  followed  by  one  of  these  three  marks. 

The  end  of  a declarative  or  an  imperative  sentence  is  marked 
by  a period.  But  a declarative  or  an  imperative  sentence  that  is 
likewise  exclamatory  may  be  followed  by  an  exclamation  point 
instead  of  a period. 

The  end  of  a direct  question  is  marked  by  an  interrogation 
point. 

An  exclamatoiy  sentence  in  the  form  of  an  indirect  question 
is  followed  by  an  exclamation  point : as,  — ‘‘  How  absolute  the 
knave  is ! ’’ 

2.  A period  is  used  after  an  abbreviation. 

3.  An  exclamation  point  is  used  after  an  exclamatory  word  or 
phrase. 

Note.  — This  rule  is  not  absolute.  Most  interjections  take  the  exclama- 
tion point.  With  other  words  and  with  phrases,  usage  differs ; if  strong 
feeling  is  expressed,  the  exclamation  point  is  commonly  used,  hut  too  many 
such  marks  deface  the  page. 

t The  main  rules  of  punctuation  are  well  fixed  and  depend  on  important 
distinctions  in  sentence  structure  and  consequently  in  thought.  In  detail, 
however,  there  is  much  variety  of  usage,  and  care  should  be  taken  not 
to  insist  on  such  uniformity  in  the  pupils’  practice  as  is  not  found  in  the 
printed  hooks  which  they  use.  If  young  writers  can  he  induced  to  indicate 
the  ends  of  their  sentences  properly,  much  has  been  accomplished. 


PUNCTUATION. 


393 


II. 

The  comma  is  used  — 

1.  After  a noun  (or  a phrase)  of  direct  address  (a  vocative 
nominative^. 

Note  1.  — If  the  noun  is  exclamatory,  an  exclamation  point  may  be 
used  instead  of  a comma. 

Note  2. — For  the  punctuation  after  the  salutation  in  a letter,  see 
pp.  82—83. 

2.  Before  a direct  quotation  in  a sentence.  Thus,  — 

The  cry  ran  through  the  ranks,  “ Are  we  never  to  move  forward  ? 

Note.  — When  the  quotation  is  long  or  formal,  a colon,  or  a colon  and  a 
dash,  may  be  used  instead  of  a comma,  especially  with  the  words  as  follows. 

3.  After  a direct  quotation  when  this  is  the  subject  or  the 
object  of  a following  verb.  Thus,  — 

“ They  are  coming;  the  attack  will  be  made  on  the  centre,”  said  Lord 
Fitzroy  Somerset. 

“ I see  it,”  was  the  cool  reply  of  the  duke. 

Note.  — If  the  quotation  ends  with  an  interrogation  point  or  an 
exclamation  point,  no  comma  is  used. 

4.  To  separate  words,  or  groups  of  words,  arranged  in  a coor- 
dinate series,  when  these  are  not  connected  by  and,  or,  or  nor. 

If  the  conjunction  is  used  to  connect  the  last  two  members  of 
the  series  but  omitted  with  the  others,  the  comma  may  be  used 
before  the  conjunction. 

I found  two  saws,  an  axe,  and  a hammer. 

They  were  so  shy,  so  subtle,  and  so  swift  of  foot,  that  it  was  difficult 
to  come  at  them. 

It  would  make  the  reader  pity  me  to  tell  what  odd,  misshapen,  ugly 
things  I made. 

They  groaned,  they  stirred,  they  all  uprose. 

Note  1.  — Commas  may  be  used  even  when  conjunctions  are  expressed, 
if  the  members  of  the  series  consist  of  several  words,  or  if  the  writer 
wishes  to  emphasize  their  distinctness. 

Note  2.  — Clauses  in  a series  are  commonly  separated  by  semicolons 
unless  they  are  short  and  simple  (see  p.  396). 


394 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


5.  To  set  off  words  and  phrases  out  of  their  regular  order. 
Thus,  — 

Seated  on  her  accustomed  chair,  with  her  usual  air  of  apathy  and  want 
of  interest  in  what  surrounded  her,  she  seemed  now  and  then  mechanically 
to  resume  the  motion  of  twirling  her  spindle.  — Scott. 

6.  To  separate  a long  subject  from  the  verb  of  the  predicate. 
Thus,  — 

To  have  passed  them  over  in  an  historical  sketch  of  my  literary  life  and 
opinions,  would  have  seemed  to  me  like  the  denial  of  a debt.  — Coleridge. 

7.  To  set  off  an  appositive  noun  or  an  appositive  adjective, 
with  its  modifiers.  Thus,  — 

I have  had  the  most  amusing  letter  from  Hogg,  the  Ettrick  minstrel. 

There  was  an  impression  upon  the  public  mind,  natural  enough  from 
the  continually  augmenting  velocity  of  the  mail,  but  quite  erroneous,  that 
an  outside  seat  on  this  class  of  carriages  was  a post  of  danger. 

De  Quincey. 

Note  1.  — Many  participial  and  other  adjective  phrases  come  under  this 
head.  Thus,  — 

The  genius,  seeing  me  indulge  myself  on  this  melancholy  prospect,  told 
me  I had  dwelt  long  enough  upon  it.  — Addison. 

Note  2.  — If  a noun  and  its  appositive  are  so  closely  connected  as  to 
form  one  idea,  no  comma  is  used.  Thus,  — 

My  friend  Jackson  lives  in  San  Francisco. 

Note  3.  — An  intensive  pronoun  {myself ^ etc.)  is  not  separated  by  a 
comma  from  the  substantive  which  it  emphasizes. 

Note  4.  — A series  of  words  or  phrases  in  apposition  with  a single  sub- 
stantive is  sometimes  set  off,  as  a whole,  by  a comma  and  a dash. 

8.  To  set  off  a subordinate  clause,  especially  one  introduced 
by  a descriptive  relative.  Thus,  — 

I am  going  to  take  a last  dinner  with  a most  agreeable  family,  who  have 
been  my  only  neighbors  ever  since  I have  lived  at  Weston.  — Cowper. 

Note.  — No  comma  is  used  before  a restrictive  relative.  Thus,  — 

I want  to  know  many  things  which  only  you  can  tell  me. 

Perhaps  I am  the  only  man  in  England  who  can  boast  of  such  good 
fortune. 


PUNCTUATION. 


395 


9.  To  set  off  a phrase  containing  a nominative  absolute. 
Thus,  — 

They  had  some  difficulty  in  passing  the  ferry  at  the  riverside,  the  ferry- 
man being  afraid  of  them.  — Defoe. 

10.  To  set  off  however,  nevertheless,  moreover,  etc.,  and  introduc- 
tory phrases  like  in  the  first  place,  on  the  one  hand,  etc. 

11.  To  set  off  a parenthetical  expression.  For  this  purpose 
commas,  dashes,  or  marks  of  parenthesis  may  be  used. 

When  the  parenthetical  matter  is  brief  or  closely  related  to  the 
rest  of  the  sentence,  it  is  generally  set  off  by  commas.  Thus,  — 

I exercised  a piece  of  hypocrisy  for  which,  I hope,  you  will  hold  me 
excused.  — Thackeray. 

When  it  is  longer  and  more  independent, it  is  generally  marked 
off  by  dashes,  or  enclosed  in  marks  of  parenthesis.  The  latter 
are  less  frequently  used  at  present  than  formerly. 

The  connection  of  the  mail  with  the  state  and  the  executive  govern- 
ment— a connection  obvious,  but  yet  not  strictly  defined  — gave  to  the 
whole  mail  establishment  an  official  grandeur. — De  Quincey. 

Note.  — Brackets  are  used  to  indicate  insertions  that  are  not  part  of 
the  text. 

III. 

The  clauses  of  a compound  sentence  may  be  separated  by 
colons,  semicolons,  or  commas. 

1.  The  colon  is  used  — 

a.  To  show  that  the  second  of  two  clauses  repeats  the  sub- 
stance of  the  first  in  another  form,  or  defines  the  first 
as  an  appositive  defines  a noun.  Thus,  — 

This  was  the  practice  of  the  Grecian  stage.  But  Terence  made  an  inno- 
vation in  the  Roman : all  his  plays  have  double  actions.  — Dryden. 

h.  To  separate  two  groups  of  clauses  one  or  both  of  which 
contain  a semicolon.  Thus,  — 

At  that  time,  news  such  as  we  had  heard  might  have  been  long  in  pene- 
trating so  far  into  the  recesses  of  the  mountains ; hut  now,  as  you  know, 
the  approach  is  easy,  and  the  communication,  in  summer  time,  almost 


396 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


hourly:  nor  is  this  strange,  for  travellers  after  i^leasure  are  become  not 
less  active,  and  more  numerous,  than  those  who  formerly  left  their  homes 
for  purposes  of  gain.  — Wordsworth. 

Note.  — The  colon  is  less  used  now  than  formerly.  The  tendency  is  to 
use  a semicolon  or  to  begin  a new  sentence. 

2 . The  semicolon  is  used  when  the  clauses  are  of  the  same  gen- 
eral nature  and  contribute  to  the  same  general  effect,  especially 
if  one  or  more  of  them  contain  commas.  Thus,  — 

The  sky  was  cloudless ; the  sun  shone  out  bright  and  warm ; the  songs 
of  birds,  and  hum  of  myriads  of  summer  insects  filled  the  air ; and  the 
cottage  garden,  crowded  with  every  rich  and  beautiful  tint,  sparkled  in  the 
heavy  dew  like  beds  of  glittering  jewels.  — Dickens. 

3.  The  comma  may  be  used  when  the  clauses  are  short  and 
simple  (see  p.  393). 

Note.  — The  choice  between  colon,  semicolon,  and  comma  is  determined 
in  many  cases  by  the  writer’s  feeling  of  the  closer  or  the  looser  connection 
of  the  ideas  expressed  by  the  several  clauses,  and  is  to  some  extent  a 
matter  of  taste. 


IV. 

1.  In  a complex  sentence  the  dependent  clause  is  generally 
separated  from  the  main  clause  by  a comma.  But  when  the 
dependent  clause  is  short  and  the  connection  close,  the  comma 
may  be  omitted. 

Note.  — A restrictive  relative  clause  is  not  preceded  by  a comma  (see 
p.  .394). 

2.  The  clauses  of  a series,  when  in  the  same  dependent  con- 
struction, are  often  separated  by  semicolons  to  give  more  emphasis 
to  each.  Thus,  — 

[Mrs.  Battles]  was  none  of  your  lukewarm  gamesters,  your  half-and- 
half  players,  who  have  no  objection  to  take  a hand  if  you  want  one  to 
make  up  a rubber ; who  affirm  that  they  have  no  pleasure  in  winning ; that 
they  like  to  win  one  game  and  lose  another ; that  they  can  while  away  an 
hour  very  agreeably  at  a card-table,  but  are  indifferent  whether  they  play 
or  no ; and  will  desire  an  adversary,  who  has  slipped  a wrong  card,  to  take 
it  up  and  play  another.  — Lamb. 


PUNCTUATION. 


397 


V. 

1.  A direct  quotation  is  enclosed  in  quotation  marks. 

Note.  — If  the  quotation  stands  by  itself  and  is  printed  in  different 
type,  the  marks  may  be  omitted. 

2.  A quotation  within  a quotation  is  usually  enclosed  in  single 
quotation  marks. 

3.  In  a quotation  consisting  of  several  paragraphs,  quotation 
marks  are  put  at  the  beginning  of  each  paragraph  and  at  the  end 
of  the  last. 

Note.  — For  the  punctuation  before  a quotation,  see  p.  393. 

4.  When  a book,  poem,  or  the  like,  is  referred  to,  the  title  may 
be  enclosed  in  quotation  marks  or  italicized. 


VI. 

1.  Sudden  changes  in  thought  and  feeling  or  breaks  in  speech 
are  indicated  by  dashes.  Thus,  — 

Eh! — what  — why  — upon  my  life,  and  so  it  is  — Charley,  my  boy,  so 
it ’s  you,  is  it  ? — Lever. 

2.  Parenthetical  expressions  may  be  set  off  by  dashes  (see 
p.  395). 

3.  A colon,  or  colon  and  dash,  may  precede  an  enumeration,  a 
direct  quotation,  or  a statement  formally  introduced,  — especially 
with  as  follows,  namely,  and  the  like.  Thus,  — 

There  are  eight  parts  of  speech:  — nouns,  pronouns,  adjectives,  verbs, 
adverbs,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  interjections. 

4.  The  dash  is  sometimes  used  to  strengthen  a comma  (as  in 
the  last  paragraph  but  one). 

Note.  — For  the  dash  in  the  salutation  of  a letter,  see  pp.  82-83. 


398 


THE  MOTHEK  TOJNGUE. 


VII. 

1.  The  apostrophe  is  used  — 

a.  To  mark  the  omission  of  a letter  or  letters  in  contractions. 
h.  As  a sign  of  the  genitive  or  possessive. 
c.  To  indicate  the  plural  of  letters,  signs,  etc. 

2.  The  hyphen  is  used  — 

a.  When  the  parts  of  a word  are  separated  in  writing. 
h.  Between  the  parts  of  some  compound  words.  (See  the 
Dictionary  in  each  case.) 

BUSINESS  FORMS. 

Brief  papers  of  a business  character,  like  bills,  notes,  receipts, 
and  checks,  are  drawn  up  in  accordance  with  certain  well- 
established  forms. 

For  these  forms  the  pupil  may  properly  consult  his  arithmetic 
or  his  copy-book. 

For  convenience,  however,  specimens  of  such  papers  are  given 
below. 

[Time  Note.] 

$375.25.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  April  2,  1901. 

Six  months  after  date,  I promise  to  pay  Benjamin  Parker 
three  hundred  seventy-five  and  dollars,  with  interest  at  5%. 
Value  received.  Robert  Overton. 


[Demand  Note.] 

$375.25.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  April  17,  1901. 

On  demand,  I promise  to  pay  Benjamin  Parker  three  hundred 
seventy-five  and  dollars,  with  interest  at  5%.  Value  received. 

Robert  Overton. 


BUSINESS  FOBMS.  399 

These  are  promissory  notes.  They  are  payable  to  Benjamin  Parker 
alone  unless  they  bear  his  signature  on  the  back  (endorsement) . In  either 
note  the  name  of  Benjamin  Parker  might  be  followed  by  the  words  or 
hearer.,  in  which  case  the  note  would  be  payable  to  any  one  having  lawful 
possession  of  it.  Or  the  name  might  be  followed  by  the  words  or  order, 
when  the  note  would  become  payable  to  the  bearer  if  endorsed  by  Benjamin 
Parker. 


[Bank  Draft.] 

$600.25.  New  York,  N.Y.,  August  12,  1900. 

Pay  to  the  order  of  James  Drew  six  hundred  and  dollars, 
value  received,  and  charge  to  account  of 

Shoe  & Leather  l^Tational  Bank,  Smith,  Leland  & Co. 
Boston,  Mass. 


[Bank  Check.] 

$310.50.  Boston,  Mass.,  March  27,  1901. 

Third  National  Bank,  Boston,  Mass. 

Pay  to  the  order  of  John  Hill  three  hundred  ten  and 

John  Enderby. 


dollars. 


$520. 


[Receipt  on  account.] 

Chicago,  III.,  Dec.  22,  1900. 


Received  of  James  L.  Williams  five  hundred  twenty  dollars  on 

account.  tit  t 

George  M.  Lyman. 


[Receipt  in  full.] 

$325.  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  July,  1901. 

Received  of  John  Cotton  three  hundred  twenty-five  dollars  in 
full  of  all  demands  to  date. 


Gerald  Norton. 


400 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


[Bills.] 

Boston,  Mass.,  March  12,  1901. 

Mr.  Alfred  Lee, 

Bought  of  Henderson  & Lewis. 


40  tons  Coal 

@ 14.75 

$190 

00 

20  cords  Wood 

@ 3.25 

65 

00 

1255 

00 

New  York,  Jan.  1,  1901. 

Mr.  Henry  Fitzgerald, 

To  James  Brown,  Dr. 


1900 

Nov. 

3 

To  10  lbs.  Coffee 

(g  35  c. 

$3 

50 

22 

11  lbs.  Lard 

@ 9 c. 

99 

Dec. 

5 

“ 25  lbs.  Sugar 

@ 5c. 

1 

25 

12 

2 lbs.  Tea 

@ 65  c. 

1 

30 

17 

04 

Jan.  12,  1901.  Received  Payment, 

James  Brown. 

AVhen  a bill  is  paid,  it  is  receipted  by  writing  at  the  bottom  the  date  of 
payment  and  the  words  Received  Payment,  followed  by  the  name  of  the 
person  or  firm  rendering  the  account.  If  a clerk  has  authority  to  sign  his 
employer’s  name,  he  signs  his  own  name  (preceded  by  the  word  by  ox  per) 
under  that  of  his  employer. 


ENGLISH  PROSODY. 


There  are  conflicting  theories  of  English  prosody,  and  no  satisfactory 
system  of  indicating  our  verse-structure  has  yet  been  devised.  The  fact 
is  that  the  movements  of  English  metre  are  too  varied  and  too  delicate  to 
be  represented  without  a very  complicated  set  of  symbols.  Pauses  and 
quantity  undoubtedly  play  their  part  in  English  versification;  but  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  reduce  these  elements  to  a system.  In  this  brief 
sketch  of  prosody  the  simplest  method  of  indicating  verse-structure  is 
followed.  Pauses  (except  the  caesura)  are  not  considered,  and  quantity  is 
also  ignored.  The  scansion  adopted  is  only  a rough-and-ready  indication 
of  the  general  movement  of  the  verse.  It  is,  however,  sufficient  for  the 
purposes  of  an  elementary  classification.  The  teacher  will  of  course  con- 
sult such  works  as  Schipper’s  “ Handbuch  der  Englischen  Metrik,”  Guest’s 
“History  of  English  Rhythms,”  Mayor’s  “English  Metre,”  and  Lanier’s 
“ English  Verse,”  and  he  will  find  Gummere’s  “ Handbook  of  Poetics  ” of 
great  practical  value.  He  must  be  prepared,  however,  to  discover  that 
doctors  disagree,  for  the  whole  subject  is  far  from  settled,  even  in  the 
minds  of  the  “ best  authorities.” 

Prosody  treats  of  the  structure  and  movement  of  verse. 


METRE. 

Poetry,  as  distinguished  from  prose,  has  metre. 

In  other  words,  the  syllables  are  arranged  in  little  groups  of 
similar  length  and  structure,  called  feet ; and  a certain  number 
of  feet  make  a line,  or  verse. 

The  number  of  feet  in  a verse  differs  in  different  kinds  of 
poetry ; but  the  variations  are  governed  by  the  laws  of  prosody. 

Often,  also,  the  lines  or  verses  are  grouped  into  larger  units, 
also  in  accordance  with  regular  laws  of  measure.  Such  units  are 
couplets  and  stanzas  (see  pp.  408,  411). 

401 


402 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


Poetry,  therefore,  has  a regularly  measured  movement,  whereas 
prose  is  free  to  move  as  the  purpose  of  the  writer  or  speaker  may 
suggest. 

The  word  metre  is  derived  from  the  Greek  meirdn,  “ measure,” 
through  the  Latin  {metrum)  and  the  French  {metre). 

The  separation  of  a verse  into  its  metrical  parts,  or  feet,  is 
called  scansion.  The  corresponding  verb  is  to  scan. 

The  scansion  of  a verse  is  only  a rough  method  of  indicating  its  metrical 
structure.  It  results  in  a kind  of  singsong  which  often  misrepresents  the 
actual  effect  of  the  verse  in  expressive  reading. 


KINDS  OF  FEET. 

English  metre  depends  in  the  main  upon  rhythm,  — that  is, 
upon  a regular  arrangement  of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables. 

The  unit  of  metrical  structure  is  the  foot. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  metrical  feet.  The  most  important 
are  the  trochee  (/  x),^  the  iambus  or  iamb  (x  /),  the  dactyl  ( / x x), 
the  anapaest  (x  x /),  and  the  spondee  (/  /). 

The  trochee  consists  of  an  accented  followed  by  an  unaccented 
syllable  (/ x). 

/xl/x|/x|/x 

Tall  and  stately  in  the  valley.  — Longfellow,  “Hiawatha.” 

/ x|/x|/x|/  xlx  x|/x|  / xlxx 

Ah,  distinctly  I remember,  it  was  in  the  bleak  December. 

Poe,  “The  Raven.” 

The  iambus  is  the  opposite  of  the  trochee.  It  consists  of  an 
unaccented  followed  by  an  accented  syllable  (x  /). 

X / |x/|x  /Ix/lx/ 

I blame  you  not  for  praising  Caesar  so. 

Shakspere,  “Julius  Caesar,”  Act  iii.  Scene  1. 

1 The  symbol  / denotes  an  accented  syllable ; the  symbol  x denotes  an 
unaccented  syllable. 


ENGLISH  PROSODY. 


403 


The  dactyl  consists  of  an  accented  syllable  followed  by  two 
unaccented  syllables  ( / x x). 

/X  x|/xx|/  xx|/xx|/xx|xx 
Entered  with  serious  mien  and  ascended  the  steps  of  the  altar. 

Longfellow,  “Evangeline,”  iv. 

The  anapaest  is  the  opposite  of  the  dactyl.  It  consists  of  two 
unaccented  syllables  followed  by  an  accented  syllable  (x  x /). 

XX  xlxxxlxx  / 

Never  sick,  never  old,  never  dead. 

The  spondee  consists  of  two  syllables,  both  stressed  (/  /)• 

/ /|x  / (x/|x/ 

Draws  d(^’’rent  threads,  and  late  and  soon 

/ /|x  /|x  / lx/ 

Spins,  toiling  out  his  own  cocoon. 

Tennyson,  “ The  Two  Voices.” 

In  many  cases  one  may  he  in  doubt  between  a trochee  and  a spondee.  A 
spondee  is  never  absolutely  required  by  the  rules  of  English  verse.  Hence 
a trochee  may  always  be  substituted.  Even  in  hexameter,  where  trochees 
are  inadmissible  in  Latin  or  Greek,  English  uses  them  freely  (see  p.  407). 
This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  it  is  hard  to  write  an  English  hexameter 
that  satisfies  a classical  scholar.  With  beginners,  the  distinction  between 
trochees  and  spondees  should  not  be  much  insisted  on. 

A verse  that  ends  with  an  incomplete  foot  is  said  to  be  cata- 
lectic.  Thus,  — 


/ xl/  x|/x|/A 
When  shall  we  three  meet  again? 

Shakspere,  “ Macbeth,”  Act  i,  Scene  1. 

The  absence  of  the  last  part  of  the  foot  may  be  indicated  by  a caret 
( A ),  as  in  the  example.  The  omission  of  a syllable  is  sometimes  regarded 
as  analogous  to  a rest  in  music. 

An  unaccented  syllable  after  the  last  iambus  does  not  affect 
the  general  structure  or  the  classification  of  the  line.  This  syl- 
lable is  often  called  an  extra  syllable,  and  the  verse  is  often  said 
to  be  hypermetrical  (“over  the  measure  ”). 


404 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


Thus  the  first  of  the  two  following  verses  is  classed  as  a deca- 
syllabic verse,  though  it  actually  has  eleven  syllables  by  reason  of 
the  “ extra  syllable.’' 

X /|x  xlx  /lx  / lx  /lx 
Do  faithful  homage  and  receive  free  honors. 

Shakspere,  “ Macbeth,”  Act  iii,  Scene  6. 

Such  extra  syllables  are  always  found  in  iambic  verse  which  has 
feminine  rhyme  (p.  405). 

Substitutions  of  one  foot  for  another  are  extremely  common  in 
English  verse. 

The  various  feet  will  be  abundantly  illustrated  in  the  examples  of 
couplets  and  of  stanzaic  structure  which  follow  (pp.  408-17).  Observe  the 
numerous  substitutions. 

A verse  is  named  from  its  prevailing  foot,  — trochaic,  iambic, 
dactylic,  anapaestic. 

A verse  of  one  foot  is  called  a monometer ; one  of  two  feet, 
a dimeter ; of  three,  a trimeter ; of  four,  a tetrameter ; of  five,  a 
pentameter  ; of  six,  an  hexameter. 

The  name  hexameter  is  usually  restricted  to  the  dactylic  hexameter 
(see  p.  407). 

Examples  of  dimeters,  etc.,  will  be  found  in  the  stanzas  quoted 
below  (pp.  411-17).  The  seventh  verse  in  the  following  passage 
is  an  iambic  monometer  (x  /)  : 

When  icicles  hang  by  the  wall, 

And  Dick  the  shepherd  blows  his  nail. 

And  Tom  hears  logs  into  the  hall. 

And  milk  comes  frozen  home  in  pail; 

When  blood  is  nipped,  and  ways  be  foul. 

Then  nightly  sings  the  staring  owl 
“ Tuwhoo! 

“Tuwhit!  tuwhoo!”  A merry  note! 

While  greasy  Joan  doth  keel  the  pot. 

Shakspere,  “ Love’s  Labor’s  Lost,”  Act  v.  Scene  2. 


ENGLISH  PROSODY. 


405 


C^SURA. 

Most  verses  are  divided  into  two  parts  by  a metrical  pause, 
called  the  caesura,  which  may  or  may  not  coincide  with  a pause 
in  the  sense  or  with  the  end  of  a foot. 

The  caesura  is  indicated  by  the  symbol  ||. 

The  place  of  the  caesura  varies  in  different  kinds  of  verse  and 
often  in  different  verses  of  the  same  general  structure.  In  many 
cases  there  maybe  a difference  of  opinion  as  to  where  it  falls. 

Some  verses  have  two  caesuras. 

For  examples  of  the  caesura,  see  pp.  406,  408-17. 


RHYME. 

English  versification  makes  frequent  use  of  a peculiar  cor- 
respondence between  the  sounds  of  different  words.  This  is 
known  as  rhyme. ^ 

The  usage  of  modern  English  poetry  requires,  for  a perfect 
rhyme,  that  the  words  shall  agree  in  their  vowel  sound  and  in 
any  consonant  sound  that  follows  the  vowel,  but  that  they  shall 
not  agree  in  the  consonant  sound  that  precedes  the  vowel.  The 
rhyming  syllables  must  also  have  the  same  accent. 

Thus,  — three,  tree;  six,  sticks;  old,  bold;  remain,  constrain;  nation, 
reputation ; bough,  now ; beau,  show. 

When  the  rhyming  syllables  are  complete  words  (monosyllahles) 
or  final  accented  syllables,  the  rhyme  is  called  single,  or  masculine. 

Thus,  — well,  fell;  brand,  banned ; say,  obey;  ill,  fulfil;  inspire,  choir ; 
sure,  secure;  deceive,  believe;  change,  derange;  before,  adore;  wood, 
understood;  indeed,  proceed;  cavalier,  hear. 

When  the  rhyme  includes  both  an  accented  and  a following 
(unaccented)  syllable,  it  is  called  a double  or  feminine  rhyme. 

1 The  word  is  here  restricted  to  end-rhyme,  in  accordance  with  ordinary 
usage.  For  alliteration,  see  p.  418. 


406 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


Thus,  — swinging,  ringing ; decided,  guided ; steady,  ready ; defences, 
senses ; faster,  alabaster ; contradiction,  conviction ; exactly,  compactly. 

Note.  — The  unaccented  syllable  may  be  an  independent  monosyllabic 
word.  Thus,  — send  it,  mend  it;  charm  him,  harm  him;  said  it,  credit;-^ 
certain,  desert  in,  alert  in  (Byron);  o’erthrdwn  he,  Macdne  (Byron). 

A wight  he  was  whose  very  sight  would 

Entitle  him  “ Mirror  of  Knighthood.^'  — Butler,  “ Hudibras,”  i,  1. 

• In  a triple  rhyme  the  accented  syllable  is  followed  by  two 
unaccented  syllables. 

Thus,  — furious,  injurious ; ravelling,  travelling;  geography,  topogra- 
phy; particle,  article. 

Triple  rhymes  are  rare  in  serious  poetry.  In  humorous  verse 
they  are  often  whimsically  used  for  comic  effect. 

I have  seen  Napoleon,  who  seemed  quite  a Jupiter ^ 

Shrink  to  a Saturn.  I have  seen  a duke 
(No  matter  which)  turn  politician  stupider^ 

If  that  can  well  be,  than  his  wooden  look. 

But  it  is  time  that  I should  hoist  my  “ blue  Peter" 

And  sail  for  a new  theme.  — Byron. 

Blank  verse  is  verse  without  rhyme.  The  term  is  specially 
applied  to  unrhymed  iambic  verse  of  ten  syllables,  like  that  of 
Shakspere  and  Milton. 

X / \ X /|xll/lx/lx  / 

Thus  they  their  doubtful  consultations  dark 

Ended,  rejoicing  in  their  matchless  chief: 

As,  when  from  mountain  tops  the  dusky  clouds 
Ascending,  while  the  north  wind  sleeps,  overspread 
Heav’n’s  cheerful  face,  the  low’ring  element 
Scowls  o’er  the  darkened  landskip  snow  or  shower. 

If  chance  the  radiant  sun,  with  farewell  sweet. 

Extend  his  ev’ning  beam,  the  fields  revive. 

The  birds  their  notes  renew,  and  bleating  herds 
Attest  their  joy,  that  hill  and  valley  rings. 

Milton,  “ Paradise  Lost,”  Book  ii,  verses  486-95. 

In  the  example  observe  the  substitution  of  a trochee  (x  x)  for  an 
iambus  (x  /)  in  verses  2 {ended)  and  6 {scdwls  o'er). 


ENGLISH  PKOSODY- 


407 


Blank  verse  is  very  monotonous  if  there  is  a pause  at  the  end 
of  nearly  every  line,  — that  is,  if  all  or  most  of  the  verses  are 
end-stopped/’  Thus,  — 

There  resteth  all.  But  if  they  fail  thereof, 

And  if  the  end  bring  forth  an  ill  success, 

On  them  and  theirs  the  mischief  shall  befall, — 

And  so  I pray  the  gods  requite  it  them. 

And  so  they  will,  for  so  is  wont  to  be. 

Sackville,  “ Gorboduc,”  Act  i.  Scene  1. 

An  intermixture  of  ‘‘run-on  lines”  (that  is,  of  lines  which 
have  no  pause  at  the  end)  is  necessary  to  give  blank  verse  an 
agreeable  variety.  Thus, — 

If  it  were  done  when  Tis  done,  then  ’twere  well 
It  were  done  quickly.  If  th’  assassination 
Could  trammel  up  the  consequence,  and  catch 
With  his  surcease,  success,  that  but  this  blow 
Might  be  the  be-all  and  the  end-all  here,  — 

But  here,  upon  this  bank  and  shoal  of  time,  — 

We ’d  jump  the  life  to  come. 

Shakspere,  “ Macbeth,”  Act  i.  Scene  7. 

The  extra  syllable  (p.  403)  is  also  used  to  vary  the  structure 
of  blank  verse  (as  in  the  second  line  of  the  preceding  example). 

Blank  verse  is  one  of  the  commonest  of  English  metres,  espe- 
cially in  the  drama  (as  in  Shakspere)  and  in  narrative  poems 
(as  “Paradise  Lost”.).  The  following  well-known  works  are  in 
blank  verse  : — Young’s  “ Night  Thoughts  ” ; Cowper’s  “ Task  ” ; 
Thomson’s  “ Seasons  ” ; Byron’s  “ Manfred  ” ; Keats’s  “ Hype- 
rion ” ; Wordsworth’s  “ Excursion  ” ; Tennyson’s  “ Princess,” 
“ Idylls  of  the  King,”  and  “ Enoch  Arden.” 

Unrhymed  dactylic  hexameters  are  sometimes  used  in  narrative 
poetry,  as  in  Longfellow’s  “ Evangeline.”  Thus,  — 

/xx|/x|/Ilx  x|/xx|/xx|/  X 
Oft  on  autumnal  eves  when  without  in  the  gathering  darkness 

Bursting  with  light  seemed  the  smithy,  through  every  cranny  and  crevice. 
Warm  by  the  forge  within  they  watched  the  laboring  bellows. 


408 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


The  Greek  and  Latin  hexameter  consists  of  dactyls  and  spon- 
dees; in  English,  however,  the  so-called  spondees  in  hexameter 
are  usually  trochees  (see  p.  403). 


COUPLETS. 

A group  of  two  rhymed  lines  of  like  metrical  structure  is  called 

a couplet. 

The  commonest  couplets  are  the  heroic  or  ten-syllable  (deca- 
syllabic) couplet,  and  the  short  or  eight-syllable  (octosyllabic) 
couplet;  but  there  are  many  other  varieties. 

1.  The  ten-syllable  (decasyllabic)  or  heroic  couplet;  two  iambic 
pentameters. 

X / lx  xlxll  / |x  / |x/ 

Tis  strange  the  miser  should  his  cares  employ! 

To  gain  those  riches  he  can  ne’er  enjoy: 

Is  it  less  strange  the  prodigal  should  waste 
His  wealth,  to  purchase  what  he  ne’er  can  taste? 

Pope,  “ Moral  Essays,”  Epistle  iv,  verses  1-4. 

Now  while  the  silent  workings  of  the  dawn 
Were  busiest,  into  that  selfsame  lawn. 

All  suddenly,  with  joyful  cries  there  sped 
A troop  of  little  children  garlanded; 

Who,  gathering  round  the  altar,  seemed  to  pry 
Earnestly  round,  as  wishing  to  espy 
Some  folk  of  holiday;  nor  had  they  waited 
For  many  moments,  ere  their  ears  were  sated 
With  a faint  break  of  music,  which  ev’n  then 
Filled  out  its  voice,  and  died  away  again. 

Keats,  “Endymion,”  Book  i,  verses  107-16. 

The  heroic  couplet  is  susceptible  of  great  variety  and  also  of 
deadening  monotony.  It  is  one  of  the  commonest  of  English 
rhythms.  See,  for  example,  many  of  Chaucer’s  “ Canterbury 
Tales  ” ; many  passages  in  Shakspere ; most  of  the  poems  of 
Dryden,  Pope,  and  their  school ; Goldsmith’s  “ Traveller  ” and 

! The  place  of  the  caesura  often  varies  in  different  verses  of  the  same 
extract.  The  scheme  applies  to  the  first  verse  in  each  case. 


ENGLISH  PROSODY. 


409 


^‘Deserted  Village”;  Cowper’s  ‘‘Table  Talk,”  etc.^,  Byron’s 
“ English  Bards  and  Scotch  Reviewers  ” ; Keats’s  “ Endymion  ” and 
“Lamia ” ; Shelley’s  “ Epipsychidion,”  “ Letter  to  Maria  Gisborne,” 
and  “Julian  and  Maddalo  ” ; Campbell’s  “ Pleasures  of  Hope.” 

2.  The  eight-syllable  (octosyllabic')  couplet ; two  iambic  tetram- 
eters. I I II  I 

/ xlx  /ixll/|x  / 

X /|x  /lxll/|x  / 

Soon  as  the  midnight  bell  did  ring, 

Alone,  and  armed,  forth  rode  the  king 
To  that  old  camp’s  deserted  round. 

Sir  knight,  you  well  might  mark  the  mound, 

Left  hand  the  town,  — the  Pictish  race 
The  trench,  long  since,  in  blood  did  trace; 

The  moor  around  is  brown  and  bare. 

The  space  within  is  green  and  fair. 

The  spot  our  village  children  know. 

For  there  the  earliest  wild  flowers  grow; 

But  woe  betide  the  wandering  wight 
That  treads  its  circle  in  the  night! 

Scott,  “Marmion,”  Canto  iii,  23. 

In  the  first  line  note  the  substitution  of  a trochee  for  an  iambus  in 
the  first  foot. 

This  couplet  has  been  much  used  in  narrative  poetry,  as  in 
Chaucer’s  “ House  of  Fame  ” ; Gower’s  “ Confessio  Amantis  ” ; 
Burns’s  “Twa  Dogs”  and  “ Tam  O’Shanter  ” ; Scott’s  “Lay  of  the 
Last  Minstrel,”  “ Marmion,”  and  “ Lady  of  the  Lake  ” ; Byron’s 
“Giaour”  and  “Bride  of  Abydos”;  Wordsworth’s  “White  Doe 
of  Rylstone.” 

The  eight-syllable  verse  is  often  called  Hudibrastic,  from  its  use 
in  Samuel  Butler’s  satirical  poem  “ Hudibras.” 

For  rhetoric,  he  could  not  ope 

His  mouth  but  out  there  flew  a trope; 

And  when  he  happen’d  to  break  off 
I’  th’  middle  of  his  speech,  or  cough, 

H’  had  hard  words  ready,  to  show  why 
And  tell  what  rules  he  did  it  by; 

Else,  when  with  greatest  art  he  spoke. 

You ’d  think  he  talk’d  like  other  folk. 

Butler,  “ Hudibras,”  Part  i.  Canto  1. 


410 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


3.  The  seven-syllable  trochaic  couplet ; two  trochaic  tetram- 
eters catalectic. 

/ x|/  xll/xl/  A 

Blessings  on  thee,  little  man, 

Barefoot  boy,  with  cheek  of  tan! 

With  thy  turned  up  pantaloons. 

And  thy  merry  whistled  tunes. 

Whittier,  “ The  Barefoot  Boy.” 

Once  again  my  call  obey! 

Prophetess,  arise,  and  say 
What  dangers  Odin’s  child  await. 

Who  the  author  of  his  fate. 

Gray,  “ The  Descent  of  Odin.” 

Four  iambic  feet  may  be  substituted,  as  in  the  third  verse  of  the 
extract  from  Gray  (x  / | x / | x /lx  /). 

4.  The  fourteen-syllable  iambic  couplet. 

X /|x  /lx  /Ix/llx  / lx  /lx  / 

’Twas  in  the  wilds  of  Lebanon,  amongst  its  barren  hills, — 

To  think  upon  it,  even  now,  my  very  blood  it  chills ! — 

My  sketch-book  spread  before  me,  and  my  pencil  in  my  hand, 

I gazed  upon  the  mountain  range,  the  red  tumultuous  sand. 

The  plumy  palms,  the  sombre  firs,  the  cedars  tall  and  proud,  — 
When  lo!  a shadow  passed  across  the  paper  like  a cloud. 

And  looking  up  I saw  a form,  apt  figure  for  the  scene, 
Methought  I stood  in  presence  of  an  oriental  queen. 

Hood,  “The  Desert-Born.” 

Such  verses  are  usually  divided  by  the  caesura  into  two  parts  of 
eight  and  six  syllables  respectively. 

5.  Fifteen-syllable  trochaic  couplets;  eight  trochees,  the  last 
catalectic. 

/xl/  x|  / x|/xll/xI/x|/x|/A 
Yet  I doubt  not  through  the  ages  one  increasing  purpose  runs. 

And  the  thoughts  of  men  are  widened  with  the  process  of  the  suns. 

Tennyson,  “ Locksley  Hall.” 

Such  verses  are  usually  divided  by  the  caesura  into  two  parts 
of  eight  and  seven  syllables  respectively. 


ENGLISH  rKOSODY. 


411 


6.  The  sixteen-syllable  trochaic  couplet. 

/ x|/x|/xl/xll/'x|/x|  / xl/x 

Ah,  distinctly  I remember,  it  was  in  the  bleak  December. 

Poe,  “ The  Raven.” 

Such  verses  are  usually  divided  into  halves  by  the  caesura.  In 
‘‘  The  Kaven  ” the  two  halves  rhyme. 

7.  The  eleven-syllable  anapaestic  couplet ; one  iambus  and 
three  anapaests. 

X /|x  X /Ixllx  /I  XX  / 

Here  lies  our  good  Edmund,  whose  genius  was  such. 

We  scarcely  can  praise  it  or  blame  it  too  much; 

Who,  born  for  the  universe,  narrowed  his  mind. 

And  to  party  gave  up  what  was  meant  for  mankind ; 

Though  fraught  with  all  learning,  yet  straining  his  throat 
To  persuade  Tommy  Townshend  to  lend  him  a vote. 

Goldsmith,  “Retaliation,”  verses  29-34. 

The  first  foot  may  be  either  an  iambus  (as  in  the  first  three  lines  and 
the  fifth)  or  an  anapaest  (as  in  the  fourth  and  sixth  lines).  The  caesura  is 
usually  in  the  third  foot,  sometimes  after  the  second  (as  in  the  fourth  line). 


STANZAS. 


A regular  group  of  more  than  two  verses  is  called  a stanza. 


A stanza  is  often  less  properly  called  a verse. 


The  number  of  possible  varieties  of  stanza  is  unlimited.^  Some 
of  the  most  important  kinds  will  now  be  mentioned. 

1.  Three-line  stanza  with  a single  rhyme  ; three  iambic  pentam- 


eters. 


/ /|x  /llx/|x/|x  / 

X /lx  / II  X / I X / I X / 

X /|  / /llx/|x/|x  / 

Rain,  rain,  and  sun!  a rainbow  in  the  sky! 
A young  man  will  be  wiser  by  and  by; 

An  old  man’s  wit  may  wander  ere  he  die. 


Tennyson,  “ The  Coming  of  Arthur.” 


In  the  first  verse  the  first  foot  is  distinctly  spondaic  {rain  rain).  No 
one  would  think  of  reading  it  as  an  iambus  {rain  rain). 


1 This  variety  is  particularly  exemplified  in  songs  and  other  lyrical 
poems.  See,  for  instance,  Schelling’s  “Elizabethan  Lyrics”  and  “Sev- 
enteenth Century  Lyrics  ” and  Palgrave’s  “Golden  Treasury.” 


412 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


2.  Four-line  stanza  consisting  of  two  eight-syllable  iambic 
couplets. 

XX  / |xx  / |x  /Ix  / 

X / | X / |x  x|x  / 

In  the  heart  of  the  Hills  of  Life,  I know 
Two  springs,  that  with  unbroken  flow 
Forever  pour  their  lucent  streams 
Into  my  soul’s  far  Lake  of  Dreams. 

Lanier,  “ My  Springs.” 

The  first  two  feet  in  the  first  verse  are  anapaests. 

3.  Four -line  stanza  with  alternate  rhyme  (ahah’^).  Each 
verse  consists  of  four  iambs. 

X /lx  /llx  /lx/ 

The  merry  world  did  on  a day 

With  his  train-hands  and  mates  agree 
To  meet  together  where  I lay 
And  all  in  sport  to  jeer  at  me. 

George  Herbert,  “The  Quip.” 

4.  The  same  as  No.  3,  but  with  feminine  rhyme  in  the  second 
and  fourth  verses. 

41 

X /lx  / II  X /|x  / 

The  peeress  comes.  The  audience  stare. 

And  doff  their  hats  with  due  submission. 

She  curtsies,  as  she  takes  the  chair. 

To  all  the  people  of  condition. 

Gray,  “ A Long  Story,”  stanza  28. 

5.  Four -line  stanza  rhyming  alternately  (ah  ah).  The  first 
and  third  verses  consist  of  four  iambs  ; the  second  and  fourth 
of  three. 

Around  in  sympathetic  mirth 
Its  tricks  the  kitten  tries; 

The  cricket  chirrups  in  the  hearth; 

The  crackling  fagot  flies. 

Goldsmith,  “The  Hermit,”  stanza  14. 

1 The  order  of  the  letters  indicates  the  order  of  the  rhymes.  Thus  ah  ah 
indicates  that  there  are  four  verses  in  the  stanzas,  and  two  rhymes,  and 
further  that  the  first  verse  rhymes  with  the  third  and  the  second  with  the 
fourth. 


ENGLISH  PROSODY. 


413 


6.  The  same  as  No.  5,  except  that  the  first  and  third  lines  do 

not  rhyme.  upon  the  right: 

Out  of  the  sea  came  he, 

Still  hid  in  mist,  and  on  the  left 
Went  down  into  the  sea. 

Coleridge,  “ Ancient  Mariner,”  Part  ii,  stanza  1. 


The  dogs  did  bark,  the  children  screamed, 

Up  flew  the  windows  all; 

And  every  soul  cried  out,  “Well  done!  ” 

As  loud  as  he  could  bawl.  — Cowper,  “John  Gilpin.” 


7 . Quatrains : a stanza  consisting  of  four  ten-syllable  iambic 

lines,  rhyming  alternately  (ah  ah).  , 

V I ' ’ * / W 

Their  cries  soon  waken  all  the  dwellers  near; 

Now  murmuring  noises  rise  in  every  street ; 

The  more  remote  run  stumbling  with  their  fear, 

And  in  the  dark  men  jostle  as  they  meet. 

Dryden,  “ Annus  Mirahilis,”  stanza  227. 

Gray’s  “ Elegy  ” is  written  in  this  stanza. 

8.  Four -line  anapaestic  stanza;  the  second  and  fourth  verses 

X X /II  XX  /|x  / 

Know  that  Love  is  a careless  child, 

And  forgets  promise  past; 

He  is  blind,  he  is  deaf  when  he  list, 

And  in  faith  never  fast. 

His  desire  is  a dureless  content. 

And  a trustless  joy; 

He  is  won  with  a world  of  despair. 

And  is  lost  with  a toy.  Raleigh  (?). 

In  the  example  the  last  foot  in  the  first  verse  and  in  the  sixth  is  an 
iambus ; all  the  other  feet  in  the  two  stanzas  are  anapaests. 

9.  Four-line  stanza ; two  anapaestic  couplets. 

X X /I  X X / II  X X /|x  X / 

Macedonia  sends  forth  her  invincible  race; 

For  a time  they  abandon  the  cave  and  the  chase: 

But  those  scarfs  of  blood-red  shall  be  redder,  before 
The  sabre  is  sheathed  and  the  battle  is  o’er. 

Byron,  “ Childe  Harold’s  Pilgrimage,”  Canto  iv,  Song  after  stanza  72. 


414 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


10.  Four-line  stanza,  rhyming  ah  h a\  iambic ; the  stanza  of 
Tennyson’s  “ In  Memoriam.” 

X / lx  / |x/|x  / 

We  paused;  the  winds  were  in  the  beech; 

We  heard  them  sweep  the  winter  land; 

And  in  a circle,  hand  in  hand, 

Sat  silent,  looking  each  at  each.  — Section  xxx. 

There  twice  a day  the  Severn  fills: 

The  salt  sea-water  passes  by. 

And  hushes  half  the  babbling  Wye, 

And  makes  a silence  in  the  hills.  — Section  xix. 


To-night  the  winds  begin  to  rise 

And  roar  from  yonder  dropping  day; 

The  last  red  leaf  is  whirl’d  away. 

The  rooks  are  blown  about  the  skies; 

The  forest  crack’d,  the  waters  curl’d. 

The  cattle  huddled  on  the  lea; 

And,  wildly  dash’d  on  tower  and  tree. 

The  sunbeam  strikes  along  the  world.  — Section  xv. 

11.  Four -line  stanza,  with  alternate  rhyme  (ahah)\  iambic; 
verses  1-3  octosyllabic ; verse  4 of  four  syllables. 

/x|x  /llx  /|x  / 

X / I X / 

Happy  the  man  whose  wish  and  care 
A few  paternal  acres  bound. 

Content  to  breathe  his  native  air 
In  his  own  ground.  — Pope. 


12.  Five-line  stanza ; verses  1,  3,  and  5 trochaic;  verses  2 and  4 


iambic. 


/x|/x|/x|/A 
X/lx/|x/lx  A 
/x|/xl/x|/A 
x/|x/|x/|x  A 
/x|/x|/x|  / A 


Who  is  Silvia?  What  is  she. 

That  all  our  swains  commend  her? 

Holy,  fair,  and  wise  is  she; 

The  heaven  such  grace  did  lend  her 
That  she  might  admired  be. 

Shakspere,  “Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona.” 


ENGLISH  PROSODY. 


416 


13.  Six-line  stanza,  consisting  of  four  iambic  eight-syllable 

lines  rhyming  alternately,  followed  by  a couplet  in  the  same 

metre  (ah  a h c c^. 

x'/|x  /II  x/Ix  / 

There  is  a change  — and  I am  poor; 

Your  love  hath  been,  nor  long  ago, 

A fountain  at  my  fond  heart’s  door. 

Whose  only  business  was  to  flow; 

And  flow  it  did,  not  taking  heed 
Of  its  own  bounty  or  my  need. 

Wordsworth,  “ A Complaint.” 

14.  Six-line  stanza  rhyming  a ah  c c h \ iambic  ; two  octo- 
syllabic couplets ; a verse  of  three  iambs  ; another  couplet ; a 
verse  of  three  iambs. 

X / |x  /|x/|x  / 

X / I X / I X / 

The  youth  of  green  savannahs  spake, 

And  many  an  endless,  endless  lake 
With  all  its  fairy  crowds 
Of  islands  that  together  lie 
As  quietly  as  spots  of  sky 

Among  the  evening  clouds. 

Wordsworth,  Ruth,”  stanza  12. 

15.  Six-line  stanza  of  decasyllabic  iambic  verses,  the  first  four 
rhyming  alternately,  the  last  two  forming  a couplet  (ah  ah  c c^. 

X /|x/||x/|x  /|x  / 

With  sacrifice  before  the  rising  morn 
Vows  have  I made  by  fruitless  hope  inspired; 

And  from  the  infernal  gods,  ’mid  shades  forlorn 
Of  night,  my  slaughtered  lord  have  I required: 

Celestial  pity  I again  implore, — 

Restore  him  to  my  sight  — great  Jove,  restore! 

Wordsworth,  “Laodamia.” 

By  all  means  use  sometimes  to  be  alone. 

Salute  thyself;  see  what  thy  soul  doth  wear. 

Dare  to  look  in  thy  chest,  for  ’tis  thine  own, 

And  tumble  up  and  down  what  thou  find’st  there. 

Who  cannot  rest  till  he  good  fellows  find. 

He  breaks  up  house,  turns  out  of  doors  his  mind. 

George  Herbert,  “ The  Church  Porch,”  stanza  25. 


416 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


16.  Rhyme  royal : seven-line  stanza  of  decasyllabic  iambic 
verses,  rhyming  a h a h h c c. 

And  though  your  grene  youthe  flour e as  yit, 

In  crepeth  age  alwey,  as  stille  as  stoon, 

And  death  manaceth  every  age,  and  smit 
In  ech  estat,  for  ther  escapeth  noon : 

And  al  so  certein  as  we  knowe  echoon 
That  we  shul  deye,  as  uncerteyn  we  alle 
Ben  of  that  day  when  death  shal  on  us  falle. 

Chaucer,  “The  Clerk’s  Tale,”  stanza  10. 

17.  Eight  decasyllabic  iambic  verses,  rhyming  ah  ah  ah  c c. 

In  the  mid  days  of  autumn,  on  their  eves 
The  break  of  winter  comes  from  far  away. 

And  the  sick  west  continually  bereaves 
Of  some  gold  tinge,  and  plays  a roundelay 
Of  death  among  the  hushes  and  the  leaves. 

To  make  all  hare  before  he  dares  to  stray 
From  his  north  cavern.  So  sweet  Isabel 
By  gradual  decay  from  beauty  fell. 

Keats,  “ Isabella,”  stanza  32. 

18.  Nine-line  stanza  (the  Spenserian  stanza),  rhyming 
ahahhchcc^  iambic ; all  decasyllabic  except  the  last  which 
is  an  Alexandrine  (x  / | x / I x / II  x / I x / i x /). 

Behold  the  merry  minstrels  of  the  morn. 

The  swarming  songsters  of  the  careless  grove, 

Ten  thousand  throats!  that  from  the  flowering  thorn 
Hymn  their  good  God,  and  carol  sweet  of  love. 

Such  grateful  kindly  raptures  them  emove: 

They  neither  plough  nor  sow;  ne,  fit  for  flail. 

E’er  to  the  barn  the  nodden  sheaves  they  drove; 

Yet  theirs  each  harvest  dancing  in  the  gale. 

Whatever  crowns  the  hill,  or  smiles  along  the  vale, 
x/lx  /|x  /llx  /|x/lx  / 

Thomson,  “ Castle  of  Indolence,”  Canto  i,  stanza  10. 

This  stanza  was  first  used  by  Spenser  in  “ The  Faerie  Queene.'' 
It  is  also  found  in  Byron’s  “ Childe  Harold,”  Keats’s  “Eve  of 
St.  Agnes,”  and  many  other  poems. 


ENGLISH  PROSODY. 


417 


19.  Ten-line  stanza,  rhyming  ahahcdecde\  all  decasyllabic 
iambic  verses,  except  the  eighth,  which  is  of  six  syllables. 

Thou  wast  not  born  for  death,  immortal  bird! 

No  hungry  generations  tread  thee  down; 

The  voice  I hear  this  passing  night  was  heard 
In  ancient  days  by  emperor  and  clown: 

Perhaps  the  selfsame  song  that  found  a path 
Through  the  sad  heart  of  Ruth,  when,  sick  for  home, 

She  stood  in  tears  among  the  alien  corn; 

The  same  that  ofttimes  hath 
Charmed  magic  casements,  opening  on  the  foam 
Of  perilous  seas,  in  faery  lands  forlorn. 

Keats,  “ Ode  to  a Nightingale.” 

A powerful  effect  is  sometimes  produced  by  rhyming  together 
a considerable  number  of  lines,  as  in  the  following  extraordinary 
passage  from  Hood  : — 

Gold!  gold!  gold!  gold! 

Bright  and  yellow,  hard  and  cold. 

Molten,  graven,  hammered,  and  rolled; 

Heavy  to  get  and  light  to  hold; 

Hoarded,  bartered,  bought,  and  sold; 

Stolen,  borrowed,  squandered,  doled: 

Spurned  by  the  young,  but  hugged  by  the  old 
To  the  very  verge  of  the  churchyard  mould  — 

Price  of  many  a crime  untold; 

Gold!  gold!  gold!  gold! 

Good  or  bad  a thousand-fold! 

Hood,  “Miss  Kilmansegg.” 

THE  SONNET. 

The  sonnet  is  not  a stanza  but  a complete  poem  of 
fourteen  ten-syllable  iambic  verses. 

In  the  strict  type  of  the  sonnet  (the  so-called  “ Petrar- 
chan type  ”)  the  verses  form  two  groups,  — the  octave 
(of  eight  verses)  and  the  sestet  (of  six  verses).  The 
octave  has  two  rhymes,  arranged  a h b a h b a.  The 


418 


THE  MOTHEK  TONGUE. 


sestet  has  either  two  or  three  rhymes,  which  are  differ- 
ent from  those  of  the  octave  and  are  arranged  either 
c d c d c d oi\  page  VIQ)  ot  e d e c d e, 

Cyriack,  whose  grandsire  on  the  royal  bench 
Of  British  Themis,  with  no  mean  applause, 

Pronounced,  and  in  his  volumes  taught,  our  laws. 

Which  others  at  their  bar  so  often  wrench. 

To-day  deep  thoughts  resolve  with  me  to  drench 
In  mirth  that  after  no  repenting  draws ; 

Let  Euclid  rest,  and  Archimedes  pause. 

And  what  the  Swede  intends,  and  what  the  French. 

To  measure  life  learn  thou  betimes,  and  know 
Toward  solid  good  what  leads  the  nearest  way ; 

For  other  things  mild  Heaven  a time  ordains. 

And  disapproves  that  care,  though  wise  in  show. 

That  with  superfluous  burden  loads  the  day. 

And,  when  God  sends  a cheerful  hour,  refrains.  — Milton. 

Shakspere’s  sonnets  are  rhymed  as  follows,  — ah  ah,  c d c ef  efj  g g. 
ALLITERATION. 

Words  alliterate  when  they  begin  with  the  same  sound  or 
combination  of  sounds  : as,  — merry  maiden,  Zovely  /ady,  stiver 
and  ^Aake,  Pride  and  Prejudice, ‘‘  Sense  and  Sensibility.” 

Alliteration  according  to  fixed  rules  was  a characteristic  of  the 
oldest  English  (Anglo-Saxon)  poetry,  which  seldom  had  end- 
rhyme.  Regular  alliteration  without  end-rhyme  is  also  found  in 
many  poems  of  later  date.  Occasional  alliteration  often  occurs 
in  modern  verse  and  is  common  in  prose.  Thus,  — 

When  to  the  sessions  of  sweet  silent  thought 
I summon  up  remembrance  of  things  past, 

I sigh  the  lack  of  many  a thing  I sought. 

And  with  old  i(Joes  new  W2n\  my  dear  time’s  ^(;aste. 

Shakspere,  Sonnet  xxx. 

This  brave  o’erhanging  prmament,  this  majestical  roof,  /retted  with 
goldenpre,  — why,  it  appears  no  other  thing  to  me  than  a/oul  and  pesti- 
lent congregation  of  vapors.  — Shakspere,  “ Hamlet,”  Act  ii.  Scene  2. 


IITDEX. 


[The  references  below  are  to  pages ; f.  signifies  “ and  following  page  ” ; 
ff.  signifies  “ and  following  pages.”] 


Abstracts,  230  f. 

Accent  in  prosody,  402. 

Accessory  facts,  in  introduction,  131, 
253. 

Accuracy  in  use  of  words,  30.  See 
Correctness,  Precision. 

Action  in  stories,  124  ff. ; advanced 
by  conversation,  139;  divided, 
144  ff. ; in  description,  166  ff., 
169  f.,  191  f. ; in  explanation, 
examples,  199  f.,  201  f. ; words 
expressing,  125  ff.,  190.  Exer- 
cises, 125  ff.,  152  ff.,  359  f. 

Active  and  passive,  47. 

Adaptation  to  the  reader.  111.  See 
Appropriateness. 

Addison,  Joseph,  185,  360. 

Address  of  a letter,  81. 

Adjectives,  study  of,  33,  374  ff. ; 
adjectives,  phrases,  and  clauses, 
47 ; errors  in  use  of,  385.  See 
Words. 

Adventure,  stories  of,  147,  149  f. 

Adverbs,  adverbial  phrases  and 
clauses,  47. 

Advertisements,  103  ff. ; specimens, 
96  f.,  103  ff.  Exercises,  103  ff. 

iEsop,  148.  Exercises  based  on, 
26,  130,  154,  358. 

Allegory,  148,  336. 


Alliteration,  418. 

Ambiguity,  345,  389  f. 

Analogy.  See  Comparison. 

Anapaest  and  anapaestic  verse,  403  f . , 
411,  413. 

And,  abuse  of,  72, 282  f . ; and  which, 
385. 

Anecdotes,  specimens,  24,  64.  See 
Stories. 

Announcements,  101  ff.  Exercises, 
102  f. 

Antecedent  or  accessory  facts,  state- 
ment of,  in  introduction,  131,  253. 

Anticlimax,  294. 

Antithesis,  290  ff.  See  Contrast. 

Antonyms,  37  ff. ; compared  with 
synonyms,  38 ; list,  38  f . ; forma- 
tion, 40.  Exercises,  38  ff. 

Apostrophe,  sign,  398;  figure  of 
speech,  336. 

Appreciation,  6,  124,  241  ff. 

Appropriateness,  312  ff.,  322  ff. ; 
special  questions  of,  325  f. 

Archaisms,  307  f.,  326;  in  poetry, 
308. 

Argument,  244  ff. ; relation  to  ex- 
planation, 244,  248,  253;  kinds  of 
argument,  245  f. ; of  fact,  247  f. ; 
of  theory  or  principle,  248  f. ; of 
policy,  249  ff. ; from  authority, 


419 


420 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


250  f . ; persuasion,  251  f . ; form  of 
an  argument,  253  f. ; refutation, 
254  f . ; debate,  255  ff. ; briefs, 
258  ff . ; subjects  for,  245  f .,  368  ff. 
Exercises,  258  ff.,  368  ff. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  171,  176,  341  f. 
Exercises  based  on,  171,  360. 

Arnold,  Thomas,  172  f. 

Arrangement  of  material,  25  ff. ; in 
stories,  25  ff.,  129  f. ; in  descrip- 
tions, 187, 192  f . ; in  explanations, 
214  ff. ; in  arguments,  253  f . 

Arrangement  of  the  paragraph, 
263  ff. ; for  proportion,  187,  192  f., 
263  f.,  272 ; sequence,  71  f.,  267  f., 
270  f. ; clearness,  270  f. ; cogency, 
267  f. ; emphasis,  267,  293. 

Arrangement  of  words  and  phrases 
in  the  sentence  for  perspicuity, 
275,  279,  284,  345;  for  unity, 
42  ff . ; for  variety  and  emphasis, 
47  ff.,  57  ff.,  275  ff.,  287  ff.  See 
Antithesis,  Balance,  Climax,  Par- 
allel, Periodic. 

Article,  faulty  insertion  of,  384; 
omission  of,  390. 

Associations  of  words,  170,  327  f. 

Atmosphere  in  description,  173  ff., 
198.  Exercises,  176,  178,  195. 

Audience,  conciliation  or  prepara- 
tion of,  250. 

Austen,  Jane,  150. 

Authority,  argument  from,  250  f. ; 
basis  of,  in  language,  304  ff. 

Authors.  See  Literature. 

Bacon,  Lord,  291  ff.,  296,  331. 

Balanced  sentences,  292. 

Barbarisms,  309. 

Barrie,  J.  M.,  141. 

Bible,  125,  323,  375;  stories,  125. 

Biography,  147,  151 ; order  in,  25. 

Black,  William,  163. 


Blank  verse,  406  f. 

Body  of  a letter,  83. 

Borrow,  George,  185. 

Botany,  explanation  in,  203  ff. 
Exercise  in  description,  364. 

Boyesen,  H.  H.,  128. 

Brevity,  338  ff . 

Briefs  for  argument  and  debate, 
258  ff. 

Bronte,  Emily,  185. 

Browning,  Robert,  127  f. 

Buckley,  Arabella,  70. 

Bunner,  H.  C.,  128. 

Burke,  Edmund,  295. 

Burns,  Robert,  358,  409. 

Burroughs,  John,  190. 

Business  letters.  See  Letter-writing. 

Business  transactions,  items  in, 
with  correspondence,  95  ff . ; busi- 
ness forms,  398  ff. 

But,  overused,  72 ; but  which,  385. 

Butler,  Samuel,  406,  409. 

Byron,  Lord,  180,  336,  406  ff.,  413, 
417. 

CAESURA,  405. 

Campbell,  Thomas,  60,  127,  409. 

Capitals,  rules  for,  391;  emphatic 
or  topical,  391. 

Carlyle,  Jane  Welsh,  348  ff.  Exer- 
cise based  on,  274. 

Cases  of  pronouns,  errors  in,  384  f. 

Catalectic  verse,  403. 

Cause  and  effect,  204  (last  para- 
graph), 209  (paragraph  2),  273, 
371  f. 

Central  point  in  a description,  182, 
192  f . 

Chains  of  relatives,  288. 

Character  in  stories,  138, 142, 149  f . ; 
in  description,  183  ff. ; in  conver- 
sation, 138 ; novels  of,  149  f . Exer- 
cises, 357  f.,  362. 


INDEX. 


421 


Chaucer,  Geoffrey,  180,  185,  408  f., 
416. 

Choice  of  material.  See  Selection. 

Choice  of  words,  29  ff . , 303  ff . Exer- 
cises, 30  ff.,  374  ff.  See  Words. 

Chronological  order.  See  Time. 

Circular  letters,  101  ff. 

Circumstantial  description,  163  f., 
226.  See  Explanatory. 

Clauses  and  infinitives,  47,  50  f. ; 
adjective  and  adverbial,  47. 

Clearness,  3 ff.,  110,  345;  in  para- 
graphs, 270  f.  See  Ambiguity, 
Precision. 

Climax,  293  f . ; in  stories,  134 ; in  con- 
clusion, 134,  152;  in  paragraphs, 
372. 

Close  of  a letter,  formal,  83  f. ; of  a 
paragraph,  267  f.  See  Conclusion. 

Cogency  in  paragraphs,  267  f. 

Coherence,  272. 

Coleridge,  S.  T.,  189,  413. 

Colloquial  English,  310  f. 

Colon,  395  ff. 

Colors  in  description  and  in  paint- 
ing, 165  f. 

Comma,  393  ff. 

Comparison,  of  objects,  38;  in  de- 
scriptions, 179;  in  explanation, 
207  ff.,  222;  in  literary  criticism, 
241  f . ; in  figures  of  speech,  332 ; 
in  paragraphs,  179,  204  (para- 
graphs 2,  4),  207,  222,  280,  331, 
350  (first  paragraph),  358,  372. 
Exercises,  7,  358,  372. 

Complex  sentences,  47,  285  ff. ; rela- 
tion to  thought,  285  ff. ; emphasis 
in,  287 ; chains  of  relatives,  288. 
Exercises,  49  ff .,  52  ff.,  55  f.,  301  f. 

Complication  of  plot,  144  ff. 

Composition,  uses  of,  3 ff. ; nature 
of,  5 ; necessity  of  practice,  5 f . ; 
subjects  and  titles,  17 ff.,  72, 357  f. ; 


forms  and  types,  107  f.,  109  ff. 
See  Table  of  Contents  and  Intro- 
duction ; see  also  Oral. 

Compound  sentences,  necessity  of 
unity,  42  ff . ; use  of,  281  f . ; abuse, 
282  ff.  Exercises,  43  f. 

Conciliation  or  preparation  of  audi- 
ence in  introduction,  250. 

Conciseness,  99  f.,  101,  103,  338  ff. 

Conclusion,  in  stories,  134  f. ; in 
explanations,  225 ; in  arguments, 
254;  summary,  225,  254;  logical, 
135 ; climax,  134, 152.  Exercises, 
135. 

Condensation,  100, 139 ; of  dialogue, 
139  f. ; of  style,  338  ff. 

Condensed  expressions,  51. 

Conjunctions  and  connective 
phrases  in  transition,  72,  269  ff. 
Exercises,  274. 

Consciousness,  stream  of,  276  f.,  327. 

Construction  of  plot,  144  ff. 

Contents.  See  Material,  Coherence, 
Unity. 

Contrast,  38  f.,  41;  in  description, 
362;  in  the  paragraph,  207  ff., 
208  (last  paragraph),  349  (last 
paragraph),  352  (paragraph  2), 
358,  371  f.,  375  f.  See  Antithesis. 

Conversation, written,  64 ; in  stories, 
138  ff. ; character  in,  138 ; report- 
ing action,  139;  condensed,  139  f. ; 
explanation  in,  229;  dialect  in, 
138,  326.  Exercises,  140,  359. 

Cooper,  J.  F.,  140. 

Coordination  should  not  violate 
unity,  42  ff. ; monotonous,  72, 
282  f. 

Copiousness,  340. 

Correctness  in  words,  312  ff.,  315  ff . ; 
general  and  specific  words,  315  f . ; 
technical  terms,  316  f . ; in  syntax, 
383  ff. 


422 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


Correspondence.  See  Letter-writ- 
ing. 

Couplets,  kinds  of,  408  ff. 

Cowper,  William,  143,  168  f.,  176, 
180,  336,  407  f.,  413.  Exercises 
based  on,  168  f . 

Critical  faculty,  124,  143. 

Criticism,  of  compositions,  xvii  f. ; 

literary,  241  ff. 

Curtis,  G.  W.,  70. 

Dactyls  and  dactylic  verses,  403  f . ; 

hexameter,  403,  407  f. 

Dana,  R.  H.,  157  f.,  180,  191  f. 

Exercise  based  on,  194. 

Dash,  397. 

Date  in  a letter,  81  f . 

De  Quincey,  Thomas,  340  f . 

Debate,  255 ff.;  subjects,  256, 258 ff., 
370;  briefs/  258  ff.  Exercises, 
258  ff.,  370. 

Declarative  sentences,  effectiveness 
of,  61,  280. 

Definitions,  30,  32  f.,  355;  and 

descriptions,'  33 ; in  explanation , 
215  f.  Exercises,  240,  365. 

Defoe,  Daniel,  124,  133,  146,  147  ff., 
329,  360. 

Denying  the  contrary,  241  f.,  355, 
372. 

Description,  157  ff. ; types  of,  157  ff., 

163  f.,  226;  distinguished  from 
explanation,  163  f. ; and  pictures, 

164  ff.,  169  f. ; limitations  and 
advantages  of,  164  ff.,  169  ff . ; 
outlines  and  colors  in,  165  ff. ; 
sensations  or  sense-impressions 
in,  166  ff.,  169  ff. ; light  and  shade 
in,  166,  175  f. ; movement  in, 
166  ff.,  169  ff.,  191 ; point  of  view 
in,  170  ff.,  198,  361  f . ; of  a place, 

172  ff. ; time  and  atmosphere  in, 

173  ff.,  178,  198;  character  in. 


183  ff. ; and  narrative,  combined, 
185;  not  enumeration,  187  f. ; in 
stories,  189  f . ; action  in,  166  ff., 

169  f.,  191;  explanatory  or  cir- 
cumstantial, distinguished  from 
impressional,  226 ; specimens,  31, 
45  f.,  71,  157  ff.,  163,  168  ff.,  171, 
173  ff.,  176  f.,  179  f.,  188  f.,  346. 
Exercises,  33,  66,  68,  86  ff.,  168  f., 

170  ff.,  176,  178,  180, 185  f.,  188  f., 
194  ff.,  357  f.,  361  f.  See  Explana- 
tory description. 

Derivation  of  words,  320  f.,  373,  376. 
Descriptive  words,  exercises  in,  33, 
374  ff. 

Details,  selection  among,  21  ff. ; 
function  of,  23;  in  stories,  129  f., 
141  ff. ; in  description,  157,  182, 

187  ff.,  192  f. ; in  paragraphs,  8 f., 
31,  46,  70  f.,  157  f.,  159  f.,  177,  183, 

188  f.,  216  f.,  232,  371  f.  Exer- 
cises, 23  f.,  70,  359,  371  f. 

Diagrams  in  explanation,  223;  ex- 
amples of  their  use,  205  f.,  210. 
Exercises,  239,  365  f. 

Dialect  words,  311 ; in  stories,  138, 
326. 

Dialogue.  See  Conversation. 
Dickens,  Charles,  28,  71,  142, 144  f., 
146,  149,  157,  159  f.,  174  f.,  184, 
187, 192, 242,  322.  Exercises  based 
on,  154,  176,  186,  194  f.,  371. 
Dictionary,  use  of,  30,  32,  35,  343  f. 

Exercises,  30,  373  ff. 

Digests.  See  Abstracts. 

Dignity  of  style,  324  ff. 

Direct  narration,  136,  139.  Exer- 
cises, 137,  360. 

Direction  of  a letter,  84. 

Directness  and  emphasis,  280  f. 
Discursiveness,  340. 

Dobson,  Austin,  185. 

Double  rhyme,  405. 


INDEX. 


423 


Drama,  132  f. 

Dryden,  John,  180, 185,  242, 408, 413. 

Dynamic  description,  226.  See 
Description. 

Ease,  assisted  by  transition,  71  f., 
268  ff. 

Effect  and  cause,  in  paragraphs, 
273,  371  f.  See  Cause. 

Effectiveness,  comparative,  of  de- 
clarative, interrogative,  impera- 
tive, and  exclamatory  sentences, 
61. 

Effects  in  description,  164  ff. ; time 
of  day,  weather,  etc.,  173  ff.  See 
Sense-impressions . 

Elements  of  sentences,  43,  47  ff., 
54  ff. 

Eliot,  George,  146,  149,  167,  177  f., 
183  f.,  187,  191  f.,241,  322.  Exer- 
cises based  on,  178,  194,  358,  374. 

Emphasis,  methods  of,  in  the  sen- 
tence, 57  ff. ; in  equivalent  con- 
struction, 47 ; in  the  paragraph, 
267,  293 ; of  simple  sentences, 
280  f . ; of  a series,  281.  Exercises, 
57  ff.  See  Antithesis,  Climax. 

End-stopped  verses,  407. 

Engineering,  explanation  in,  207  ff. 

English  language,  standard  of, 
304  ff. ; foreign  words  in,  308  f. ; 
derivation  of  words,  320  f.  See 
Dictionary. 

Enumeration  in  description,  187  ff. 

Epitome,  outline  presented  in,  in 
introduction,  26,  218. 

Equivalent  constructions,  47  ff. 
Exercises,  48  ff. 

Essay,  structure  of.  See  Arrange- 
ment, Outline,  Paragraph. 

Evidence,  245  f.,  247 ; direct  and 
indirect,  247 ; antecedent  prob- 
ability, 247 ; sign,  247. 


Examples,  in  explanation,  221,  224 ; 
in  argument,  250  f.,  252;  para- 
graphs containing,  161  f.,  174  f., 
221,  224,  295,  371  f. 

Exclamatory  sentences,  effective- 
ness, 61. 

Expansion  of  condensed  expres- 
sions, 52 ; of  sentences  by  means 
of  modifiers,  55  f . ; of  topic  sen- 
tence, 62  f.,  265  f. 

Expediency,  questions  of,  in  argu- 
ment, 249  f. 

Experiences,  one’s  own,  as  subject, 
17  f.,  141. 

Explanation,  in  narratives  and 
stories,  123,  133 ; distinguished 
from  description,  163  f . ; informal, 
199  f . ; in  narrative  form,  with 
description,  201  f. ; of  scientific 
and  technical  subjects,  for  gen- 
eral reader,  203  ff.,  207  ff. ; im- 
portance of,  211 ; nature  of, 
211  ff. ; process  of,  illustrated, 
211  f. ; of  a game,  211  f. ; outline 
or  plan,  notes  for,  214  f. ; topics  in 
notes,  214  f. ; key-sentence,  215  f . ; 
how  to  make  an  outline,  214  ff. ; 
arrangement  of  topics,  216  f . ; 
introduction,  218  f. ; transition, 
219  f . ; use  of  examples,  221,  224 ; 
liveliness,  224;  conclusion,  225; 
in  recitations,  227  ff. ; in  written 
“tests,”  228;  in  conversation, 
229 ; of  character,  231  f . ; sum- 
mary of  principles  and  practice, 
232  f. ; of  abstract  ideas,  240;  and 
argument,  244,  253;  specimens, 
199  ff.  Exercises,  7,  73  ff.,  211, 
215  f.,  221,  234  ff.,  363  ff.,  367  f. 

Explanatory  narrative,  123. 

Explanatory  or  circumstantial 
description,  163,  226.  Exercises, 
7,  66,  68,  72  ff.,  86,  238  f.,  363  ff. 


424 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


Exposition.  See  Explanation. 

Exposition  of  character,  231  f. 

Expository  narrative,  123. 

Expressiveness,  314,  326  ff. ; gen- 
eral and  specific  words,  329 ; fig- 
ures of  speech,  330  ff. ; use  and 
abuse  of  figures,  337  f. 

Extra  syllable  in  verse,  403  f. 

Fables,  148;  moral  in,  135.  See 
iEsop. 

Fact,  arguments  of,  245,  247. 

Fairy  tales,  oral  tradition,  143,  148. 

Familiar  letters.  See  Letter-writ- 
ing. 

Familiar  words,  322  ff. 

Feelings.  See  Sense-impressions. 

Feet  in  prosody,  401  ff. ; kinds  of, 
402  ff. 

Feminine  rhyme,  405. 

Fiction,  147  ff. 

Figures.  See  Diagrams. 

Figures  of  similarity,  332  ff. 

Figures  of  speech,  308,  330  ff. ; in 
ordinary  talk,  330;  in  elevated 
style,  331 ; simile  and  metaphor, 
332  ff. ; metonymy,  335 ; personi- 
fication, 335  f . ; allegory,  148, 
336 ; apostrophe,  336 ; alliteration, 
418;  use  and  abuse  of  figures, 
337  f . ; mixed  metaphors,  337  f . 
Exercises,  333,  374,  378  f. 

First  person  in  narration,  136,  139. 
Exercises,  137,  360. 

Florid  or  flowery  style,  308,  323, 
337. 

Force,  47  ff.,  280,  290  ff.,  303  ff., 
326  ff.,  338  ff. 

Foreign  words  in  English,  308  f . ; 
unnaturalized,  309;  barbarisms, 
309. 

Forms.  See  Letter-writing. 

Forms,  business,  398  ff. 


Forms  of  discourse,  105  ff. 

Franklin,  8 ff.,  21,  23,  25,  27,  29, 
34,  131.  Exercises  based  on,  23, 
29,  41,  48,  53,  60,  186. 

Freedom  of  expression,  47  ff.  See 
Variety. 

Friendly  letters.  See  Letter-writing. 

Future  tense,  errors  in,  386  f. 

Game,  explanation  of,  211  f. 

Gaskell,  Mrs.,  185. 

General  and  specific  words,  315  f., 
319,  374,  376. 

General  usage,  306. 

Geographical  comparisons,  179. 

Goldsmith,  111,  115  ff.,  123,  128, 
130,  138  f.,  141  ff.,  180,  185,  334, 
408,  411  f.  Exercises  based  on, 
125,  129  f.,  374. 

Good  use.  See  Usage. 

Goss,  W.  F.  M.  G.,  199,  207  ff., 
219  f . , 222  f . , 233.  Exercises  based 
on,  377. 

Gower,  John,  409. 

Grammar,  review  of,  43,  47,  279; 
errors  in,  383  ff. 

Grammatical  equivalents,  47  ff. 

Gray,  Thomas,  180,  334,  410,  412  f . 

Green,  J.  R.,  180,  185. 

Grey,  Sir  George,  111,  120  ff.,  123, 
128,  142  f.,  190,  199,  201  f.,  217, 
221,  233,  265.  Exercises  based  on, 
216,  374. 

Grimm,  William  and  James,  111  ff., 
123,  130,  133  f.,  138  f.,  142  f.,  189. 
Exercises  based  on,  125,  129  f., 
374. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  40,  126, 
180,  185,  241,  271  f.,  289,  346  ff. 
Exercises  based  on,  126,  154,  274, 
359  f . 

Heading  of  a letter,  82. 


INDEX. 


425 


Herbert,  George,  412,  415. 

Heroic  couplet,  408  f. 

Hexameter,  403  f.,  407  f. 

Historical  writing,  137,  147. 

Holmes,  O.  W.,  186. 

Hood,  Thomas,  294,  410,  417. 

Hudibrastic  couplet,  409. 

Hypermetrical  verse,  403  f. 

Hyphen,  398. 

Iambus  and  iambic  verses,  402  ff. 

Idioms,  342. 

Imitation,  58. 

Imperative  sentences,  effectiveness 
of,  61. 

Impression.  See  Sense-impressions. 

Impressional  description,  163  ff., 
226.  See  Description. 

Impressions  of  reading.  See  Criti- 
cism. 

Improprieties,  380  ff . 

Incidents,  order  of,  129  f.  See 
Sequence. 

Individuality  in  style,  327. 

Infinitive,  split  (or  cleft),  390. 

Infinitives  and  clauses,  47,  50  f., 
and  nouns,  47. 

Informal  letter-writing,  79  f.,  81. 
See  Friendly  letters. 

Ingelow,  Jean,  137. 

Instances.  See  Examples. 

Interrelation  of  paragraphs  in  the 
essay,  66  f.,  217,  264,  269,  372. 

Interrogative  sentences,  effective- 
ness of,  61. 

Introduction,  functions  of:  presen- 
tation of  outline  in  epitome,  26, 
218  ; statement  of  antecedent  or 
accessory  facts,  131,  253 ; concilia- 
tion or  preparation  of  audience, 
250. 

Introductions  in  stories,  26,  131  ff. ; 
omitted,  132  f . ; in  description. 


191 ; action  in,  191 ; in  explana- 
tion, 218  f. ; in  argument,  253  f. 
Exercises,  28,  137,  152,  237,  359. 

Inverted  order,  59. 

Invitations  and  replies,  92  ff. 

Irving,  Washington,  31,  180,  185. 

Issue  in  argument,  253  ff. 

Jewett,  Miss  S.  O.,  150. 

Johnson,  Samuel,  242,  292,  296. 

Keats,  John,  176,  407  f.,  416  f. 

Key-sentence,  128,  215  ff.,  225. 

Kingsley,  Charles,  130. 

Kipling,  Rudyard,  134, 148, 185, 190. 

Landscape.  See  Place. 

Language,  development  of,  277  f. ; 
standard  of,  304  ff. ; literary,  305 ; 
colloquial,  310  ff.  See  English 
language.  Words. 

Lanier,  Sidney,  412. 

Law,  principles  of,  as  matters  of 
argument,  248  f. 

Letter-writing,  77  ff . ; kinds  and 
forms,  77  ff . ; specimens,  77  ff., 
92  ff . ; parts  of  a letter,  80  ff . ; 
friendly  letters,  85  ff . ; business 
letters,  88  ff. ; invitations  and 
replies,  92  ff . ; business  trans- 
actions, 95  ff.,  telegrams,  99  ff. ; 
announcements,  101  ff . ; circular 
letters,  101  ff . ; purposes  of  let- 
ters, 107  f . ; narration  in,  25 ; 
description  in,  172  f. ; argument 
and  persuasion  in,  251,  367  ff. 
Exercises,  85  ff.,  90  ff.,  95  ff., 
100  ff.,  102  f.,  127,  367  ff. 

Light  and  shade,  166,  175  f. 

Lines  of  poetry.  See  Verses. 

Literary  criticism.  See  Criticism. 

Literature  and  composition,  xiii ; 
classification  of,  108  f . ; purposes 


426 


THE  MOTHEK  TONGUE. 


of,  123  f . ; history,  123 ; drama, 
132  f. ; dialogue  or  conversation, 
138,  139  f . ; materials,  141  f. ; 
plot,  144  ff . ; narrative,  147  If. ; 
novels  and  romances,  147  ff. ; 
fables,  148;  truth  to  nature, 
148 ; character  and  manners, 
149  ff. ; biography,  151 ; art  and 
literature,  164  ff.,  192,  197,  243; 
criticism,  241  ff. ; style,  290  ff., 
299;  language,  305;  prose  and 
poetry,  308;  oratory,  324.  See 
Opinion,  Prose,  Poetry,  Reading, 
Selections. 

Liveliness  in  stories,  140;  in  de- 
scription, 169,  187,  191 ; in  expla- 
nations, 224.  See  Expressiveness, 
Variety. 

Logical  conclusion,  135. 

Longfellow,  H.  W.,  26,  32,  128, 
131,  137,  180,  185,  243,  407. 

Loose  sentences,  296  ff. 

Lubbock,  Sir  John,  199,  203  ff.,  216, 
220  f.,  223  f.,  233.  Exercises 
based  on,  377. 

Macaulay,  Lord,  123,  213,  264, 
266  f.,  269  ff.,  280  f.,295,  350  ff. 

Manners,  stories  of,  149  f . 

Maps.  See  Diagrams. 

Marvel,  Ik,  339. 

Masculine  rhyme,  405. 

Material.  See  Selection,  Arrange- 
ment. 

Material  for  stories,  141  f. 

Mechanical  subject,  explanation  of, 
207  ff.  Exercises,  235  f.,  239,  363, 
365  f. 

Metaphor,  distinguished  from  sim- 
ile, 332  ff . ; sustained,  334;  com- 
bined with  simile,  335;  use  and 
abuse  of,  337  f. ; mixed,  337  f. 
Exercises,  333,  378  f. 


Metonymy,  335. 

Metre,  401  ff. 

Milton,  John,  336,  406  f.,  418. 

Mitchell,  D.  G.  See  Marvel. 

Mitford,  Miss,  157, 161  f.  Exercises 
based  on,  195,  375. 

Mixed  metaphors,  337  f. 

Modern  usage,  305  f. 

Modifiers,  47  ff.,  53  ff.,  285  ff., 
296,  301  f.,  374;  as  aids  to  pre- 
cision, 321;  position  of,  57  ff., 
345,  389. 

Monotony,  47,  282  ff . 

Moral  conclusion,  135. 

Movement  in  description.  See 
Action. 

Mystery.  See  Suspense. 

Narration,  8 ff..  Ill  ff.,  350  ff. 
Exercises,  23  f.,  26  ff.,  72  f.,  76, 
86,  127,  130,  132  f.,  135,  137,140, 
152  ff.,  359  ff.  See  Stories. 

Narrative  letters,  order  in,  25. 

Narratives  and  stories,  types  of, 
111  ff.,  122  f.,  147  ff.,  350  ff. ; dis- 
tinguished, 122  f . ; explanatory, 
123,  135;  historical,  123;  travel 
and  exploration,  123.  See  Narra- 
tion, Stories. 

Narrator,  point  of  view,  136  f. 

Native  and  foreign  words,  308  f. 

Nervous  style,  338. 

Newman,  232,  282,  299  f.,  355  f. 

Nominative  absolute,  48. 

Notes,  making,  73,  214  f.,  227,  231. 

Notices.  See  Announcements. 

Nouns  and  infinitives,  47 ; and 
noun  clauses,  47. 

Novels,  147  ff . ; plot  of,  144  ff . 

Number,  errors  in,  384,  388  f. 

Observation  of  details,  141  f. 

Odor  in  descriptions,  166,  170. 


INDEX. 


427 


Omission  of  details,  21  ff . ; of  in- 
troduction, 132  f. ; of  unnecessary 
words,  338  f.,  342  f. ; of  necessary 
words,  339  f.,  388. 

Onlyy  place  of,  389  f . 

Opinion,  expression  of,  on  topics 
from  literature,  241  ff.,  357  f. 

Oral  composition,  outlines  and 
exercises  for,  6 f.,  26  f.,  65,  73  ff., 
127,  152  ff.,  227  f.,  229, 234  ff.,  359, 
361,  368  f. 

Oratorical  style,  324  f. 

Order.  <See  Arrangement. 

Order  of  time.  See  Time. 

Outline  in  epitome,  introduction,  26, 
218;  relation  of  topic  sentences 
to  outline,  217,  266. 

Outlines,  102,  126  f . ; of  story, 
26  ff.,  129  f.,  132 ; of  plot,  144  ff. ; 
in  explanation,  214  ff.,  234  ff. ; 
notes  for,  214  f . ; topics,  214  f. ; 
key-sentence,  215  f.  Exercises  in 
preparing  and  writing  from,  23, 
26  ff.,  64,  66,  68,  70,  73  ff.,  102, 
127,  130,  132,  153,  155  f.,  178, 
194  f.,  196  f.,  234  ff.,  258  ff.,  273, 
359,  361,  363  ff.,  366  f.,  371  f. 

Painting.  See  Pictures. 

Paragraphs,  62  ff.,  263  ff. ; speci- 
mens of,  62  f.,  67,  70  f.,  346  ff. 
{see  also  Selections) ; unity  of, 
63  ff.,  69,  264  ff. ; indentation, 
63 ; and  stanzas,  64  f . ; arrange- 
ment of  sentences  in,  69;  order 
of,  69  {see  also  Arrangement, 
Outline) ; in  letters,  89 ; topic 
sentence,  265  f. ; close  of  para- 
graph, 267  f . ; transition,  71  f., 
219  f.,  268  ff . ; coherence,  272  f. 
Exercises,  53,  64  ff.,  68  ff.,  72, 
273  f.,  371  f.  See  Arrange- 
ment. 


Paragraphs  formed  by  expansion 
of  the  topic  sentence,  62  f., 
265  f. ; by  repetition,  341  f. ; by 
partition,  203  (paragraph  1),  204 
(paragraphs  5,  6). 

Paragraphs,  types  of:  containing 
details,  8 f.,  31,  46,  70  f.,  157  f., 
159  f.,  177,  183,  188  f.,  216  f.,  232, 
371  f. ; examples  or  instances, 
161  f.,  174  f.,  182,  221,  224,  295; 
resemblance  or  comparison,  179, 
204  (paragraphs  2,  4),  207,  222, 
280,  331,  350  (first  paragraph) ; 
contrast,  207  ff.,  248  (last  para- 
graph), 349  (last  paragraph),  352 
(paragraph  2) ; denying  the  con- 
trary, 241  f.,  355;  cause  and 
effect,  204  (last  paragraph),  209 
(paragraph  2) ; proof,  247,  256  f., 
258  ff.,  367  f.  Exercises,  273  f., 
358,  367  ff.,  371  f.,  375. 

Parallel  structure,  290  ff.,  295  f. 

Parenthesis,  395,  397. 

Participial  phrases,  50,  388. 

Participles,  faulty  use  of,  388. 

Particles  of  transition,  72,  270, 
274. 

Partition  of  topic  sentence,  203 
(paragraph  1),  204  (paragraphs 
5,  6). 

Pauses  in  verse,  401,  405,  407. 

Period,  392. 

Periodic  sentences,  296  ff. 

Person.  See  First  person. 

Personification,  335  f. 

Persons,  description  of,  181  ff.,  192; 
specimens,  182  ff.  Exercises, 
196  f.,  361  f. 

Perspicuity.  See  Clearness,  Ar- 
rangement. 

Persuasion,  251  f . Exercises,  258  ff . , 
.367  ff. 

Phrases,  precision  in,  321. 


428 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


Pictures,  and  descriptions,  advan- 
tages of  each,  164  ff. ; description 
of,  185,  197.  See  Diagrams. 

Place,  description  of,  172  ff.,  180, 
192  f.,  194  ft.,  361  f.;  time  in, 
173  ff. 

Plan  of  stories,  25  ff.,  132 ; and  out- 
line, 66.  See  Outline. 

Plants.  See  Botany. 

Pleonasm,  342  f. 

Plot,  complication  of,  144  fp. ; study 
of  plots,  144  ff. 

Poe,  E.  A.,  411. 

Poems,  introduction  in,  131  ff. 

Poetical  words,  etc.,  32,  308;  order 
of  words,  60. 

Poetry,  study  of,  32,  60,  65  f.,  125, 
127,  130,  137,  140,  143,  170  f.,  176, 
180,  185  f.,  189,  196,  290  f.,  293  f., 
308,  323,  333  ff.,  341,  357,  379, 
401  ff.  See  Selections. 

Point  at  issue,  253  ff. 

Point  of  a story,  128;  leading  up 
to,  129  f. ; and  conclusion,  134. 

Point  of  view  in  description,  near, 
far,  above,  below,  etc.,  170  ff., 
198,  361  f. 

Point  of  view  in  stories,  136  f., 
154 ff.,  360. 

Policy,  argument  of,  246,  249  ff. 

Pompous  words,  307,  322. 

Pope,  Alexander,  242,  408,  414. 

Portrait,  description  of,  185. 

Position  of  modifiers,  57  ff.,  345, 
389. 

Position  of  words,  etc.,  for  emphasis 
and  variety,  57  ff . ; variations 
from  natural  order,  58  f . ; inver- 
sion, 59  f.  See  Antithesis,  Cli- 
max, Parallel  structure.  Periodic. 

Possessive,  384. 

Precision,  312  f.,  318  ff . ; general 
and  specific  words,  319;  aids  to 


precision,  320 ; in  phrases,  321 ; 
modifiers,  321. 

Prepositional  phrases,  50. 

Present  tense  in  description,  162. 

Principle,  argument  of.  See  The- 
ory. 

Probability  in  argument,  246  f . ; 
antecedent,  247. 

Pronouns,  errors  in  case  of,  384  f. ; 
in  number,  384 ; ambigudus,  389 ; 
relatives,  use  and  abuse  of,  288. 

Proof.  See  Argument. 

Proportion  in  paragraphs,  187, 192  f., 
263  f.,  272. 

Prose  extracts,  study  o4,  30  f.,  40  f., 
45,  56,  62  f.,  66  f.,  70  f.,  Ill  ff., 
126 f.,  157  ff.,  163,  173  ff.,  177, 179, 
182  ff.,  188,  194 f.,  199 ff.,  280,  295, 
297  f.,  301  f.,  323  ff.,  328,  330  f., 
340  ff.,  346  ff.,  374  fi.  See 
Selections. 

Prosody,  401  ff. 

Proverbs,  study  of,  41. 

Provincialisms,  138,  311,  326. 

Punctuation,  use  of,  299  f . ; rules  of, 
392  ff. 

Purity  of  style,  309. 

Quantity  in  verse,  401. 

Quatrains,  413. 

Question  mark,  392. 

Quotation  marks,  392. 

Read,  T.  B.,  128. 

Reading,  lists  for,  32,  127  f.,  146  ff., 
180,  185,  190,  296,  336. 

Recitations,  how  to  prepare,  227  f . ; 
explanation  in,  227  f. 

Redundancy,  342  f . 

Refutation,  254  ff. 

Relative  clauses,  abuse  of,  288. 

Relatives,  chains  of,  288 ; errors  in 
the  use  of,  385. 


INDEX. 


429 


Repetition,  340  ff. ; for  clearness  or 
emphasis,  340  ft. ; in  explanatory 
writing,  341  f . ; paragraph  con- 
structed by  repetition  of  topic 
sentence,  341  f. ; tautology,  342, 
redundancy,  .342  f. 

Replies  to  invitations,  92  ff . 

Reporters,  141. 

Reports,  72,  103;  of  conversation; 
140 ; of  lecture  or  address,  231. 

Reputable  usage,  306. 

Resemblance.  See  Comparison. 

Rhyme,  405  ff. 

Rhythm,  4(  2 ff . 

Richardson,  Samuel,  181  f. 

Riis,  J.  A.,  9 tf.,  21  f.,  27.  Exer- 
cises based  on,  23, 60, 125, 140, 377. 

Robinson  Crusoe,  133 ; study  of 
plot,  146. 

Romances,  147  ff. ; plot  of,  144  ff. 

Run-on  verses,  407. 

Ruskin,  John,  62  f.,  66  f.,  71. 

Sackville,  Thomas,  407. 

Salutation  in  a letter,  82. 

Scanning  or  scansion,  402  ff. 

Scene  in  stories,  131,  1.36,  358  f. 

Scientific  subject,  explanation  of, 
203  ff. ; description,  163,  226. 

Scientific  theory,  248. 

Scott,  11  ff.,  22  f.,  25,  27,  30,  111, 
118  f.,  123,  131  f.,  142,  146,  180, 
185,  192,  243,  409.  Exercises 

based  on,  23,  53,  56, 125,  127, 130, 
137, 188  f.,  196,  274,  359. 

Selection  of  material,  21  ff. ; in 
stories,  21  ff.,  129 ; in  description, 
172  f.,  182,  187,  189  f.,  192  f. 

Selections,  prose,  8 ff.,  31,  40  f.,  46, 
62  f.,  67,  70  f.,  112  ff.,  120  ff.,  126, 
157  ff.,  173  ff.,  177,  179,  182  ff., 
188,  199  ff.,  280,  295,  297  f.,  300, 
302, 324, 331, 340  f.,  346  ff. ; poetry. 


60,  118  f.,  168  ff.,  176,  294,  323, 
334  f.,  336,  341,  402  ff. 

Semicolon,  395  f. 

Sensation,  objects  of,  use  in  explana- 
tion, 224.  See  Sense-impressions. 

Sense-impressions  in  description, 
164  ff. ; in  explanation,  224. 

Sentences,  42  ff . , 275  ff . ; smoothness, 
45ff.,289;  unity,42ff.,45 ff. ; tran- 
sition, 71  f.,  270ff. ; variety,  45  ff., 
275  ff. ; relation  to  thought,  276  ff. ; 
kinds  of,  279  ff . ; simple  declara- 
tive, use  of,  280  f. ; abuse  of,  281 ; 
compound,  use  of,  281  f. ; abuse 
of,  282  ff . ; complex,  285 ; empha- 
sis in,  287 ; chains  of  relatives, 
288 ; antithesis,  290  ff. ; balance, 
292 ; climax,  293  f . ; parallel  struc- 
ture, 290  ff.,  295  f. ; periodic  and 
loose,  296  ff. ; punctuation,  299  f. 
Exercises,  30,  35  ff.,  42  ff.,  48  ff., 
53  ff.,  56  ff.,  60  f.,  346  ff.,  374  ff. 
See  Key-sentence,  Topic  sentence. 

Sequence  of  thought,  110 ; in  para- 
graphs, 266  ff.,  273;  of  time  or 
action,  25,  28,  144  ff.,  213,  269. 

Setting  in  stories,  131, 136, 152,  358  f. 

Shakspere,  132  f.,  148,  151,  290  f., 
293  f.,  323,  333,  335  f.,  341,  360, 
404,  407,  414,  418. 

Shall  and  will,  386  f. 

Shelley,  P.  B.,  180,  407,  409. 

Short  sentences,  45,  281. 

Sign,  argument  from,  247. 

Signature  in  a letter,  84. 

Similarity,  figures  of,  332  ff. 

Simile  and  metaphor,  332  ff.,  337  f. ; 
sustained,  334 ; combined  with 
metaphor,  335.  Exercises,  333, 
378  f. 

Simple  sentences,  use  and  effective- 
ness of,  280  ff. ; series  of,  281 ; 
abuse  of,  281. 


430 


THE  MOTHER  TONGUE. 


Simplicity,  322  ff. ; force  of,  323. 

Single  rhyme,  405. 

Sketches.  See  Diagrams. 

Slang,  310  f.,  378. 

Smell.  See  Odor. 

Smoothness,  helped  by  transition, 
71  f. 

Solecisms,  383  If. 

Sonnet,  417  f. 

Sonorous  words,  324. 

Sound  in  descriptions,  166  if. 

Southey,  Robert,  45  ff.,  127,  128. 

Specific  and  general  words,  315  f., 
318  f.,  374,  376. 

Spectator,  The,  185,  360. 

Spenser,  Edmund,  180,  416. 

Spenserian  stanza,  416. 

Spondee,  403,  408,  411. 

Stanza  and  paragraph,  65  f. ; forms 
of  stanza,  411  ff. 

Steam-engine^  207  ff. 

Stevenson,  R.  L.,  124,  133,  145  f., 
149,  167  f.,  179,  185,  190,  198,  296,- 
300. 

Stilted  style,  292,  297. 

Stories,  specimens  of,  8 ff.,  23  f., 
Ill  ff. ; outline  in,  26  ff.,  129; 
object  of,  124;  point  in,  128;  in- 
troduction in,  131  ff. ; conclusion 
of,  134  f. ; first  person  in,  136  f. ; 
conversation  in , 138  ff . (See  Con- 
versation) ; material  for,  141  f. 
Exercises,  23  if.,  26  ff.,  32,  73  ff., 
152  ff.,  358  ff.  See  Narration. 

Stream  of  consciousness,  276  f., 
327. 

Style,  differences  of,  9, 11 ; poetical, 
32,  308;  florid,  135,  308,  323,  337; 
colloquial,  310  ff. ; simple,  322  ff. ; 
oratorical,  324  f. ; nervous,  338. 

Subject  of  a composition,  17  ff. ; 
specimen  subjects,  19  f.,  72,  357  f. 
Exercises,  18,  20. 


Subject  of  a sentence,  agreement 
of,  388  f. 

Suggestion  in  words,  184,  327  f. 

Summaries  or  abstracts,  230  f. 

Summary  in  conclusion,  225,  254. 

Superscription  of  a letter,  84. 

Suspended  sentences.  See  Periodic. 

Suspense,  281 ; in  stories,  130. 

Synonyms,  34  ff . ; list  of,  :36  f . Ex- 
ercises, 34  ff.,  40  ff.,  374  ff.,  377, 
380  ff. 

Syntax,  47  ff. ; errors  in,  383  ff. 

Tautology,  342  f. 

Technical  subject,  explanation  of, 
207  ff. 

Technical  terms,  317  f.,  325  f. 
Exercises,  377  f. 

Telegrams,  99  ff. 

Tennyson,  Lord,  60,  127,  180,  336, 
407,  410  f.,  414. 

Tense.  See  Present  tense. 

Terseness,  339. 

Testimony,  247. 

Tests,  explanation  in,  228. 

Thackeray,  149,  188  f.,  297  ff.,  328, 
360. 

Thanet,  Octave,  150. 

Theory,  argument  of,  245,  248  f. 

Thomson,  James,  185,  416. 

Thoreau,  H.  D.,  190,  364. 

Thought,  process  of,  276  f. 

Time,  order  of,  in  stories,  25,  129; 
element  of,  in  descriptions,  173  ff. 
See  Present  tense. 

Titles  of  compositions,  19  f . Exer- ' 
cises,  20.  See  Subjects. 

Topic  sentence,  64, 217,  265  f. ; topic 
sentences  of  paragraphs  corre- 
sponding to  divisions  of  plan,  217, 
266.  See  Paragraphs. 

Torrey,  Bradford,  190. 

Transactions.  See  Business. 


INDEX. 


431 


Transition,  71  f.,  268  ff. ; in  descrip- 
tions, 191 ; in  explanations,  219  f. ; 
in  paragraphs,  268  f . ; in  sen- 
tences, 270  ff. ; means  of,  270  ff. 
Exercises,  273  f. 

Translation,  use  of,  343  f. 

Triple  rhyme,  406. 

Trochees  and  trochaic  verses,  402  ff. 

Typical  characters,  150. 

Unity,  42  ff.,  69;  of  paragraphs, 
63  ff.,  69,  264  ff. ; means  of,  265  ff. 
Exercises,  43  f. 

Usage,  standard  of,  304  ff. ; modern, 
305  f . ; general,  306;  variety  in, 
306;  authority,  307 ; words  not  in 
good  use,  307  ff. ; poetical  usage, 
308 ; colloquial,  310  f . ; provincial, 
311  f.  See  Words. 

Uses  of  composition,  3 ff. 

Van  Dyke,  Henry,  199  f.,  222,  233. 
Exercises  based  on,  213,  216,  273. 

Variety,  45  ff. ; and  emphasis,  57  ff. ; 
of  sentences,  45  ff. ; why  needed, 
275  ff. ; how  developed,  277  f. ; 
kinds  of  sentences,  279  ff. ; effect 
of  variety,  289 ; antithesis,  290  f . ; 
balance,  292 ; climax,  293  f . ; 
parallel  structure,  290  ff.,  295  f. ; 
periodic  and  loose  structure, 
296  ff. 

Verbosity,  338  ff. 

Verbs  in  narration,  125  ff . ; errors  in 
verbs,  386  ff. 

Verse,  401  ff. ; kinds  of,  404  ff. 

Vigorous  style,  338. 


Vividness,  enhanced  by  figures, 

• 330  f.,  337. 

Vocabulary,  study  of,  29  ff.,  32  ff. ; 
means  of  increasing,  343  f.  See 
AVords,  Synonyms,  Antonyms. 

AVeather  in  descriptions,  175  ff. 
See  Atmosphere. 

Webster,  Daniel,  324  f. 

AVeyman,  Stanley,  173  f. 

AVhittier,  J.  G.,  128,  137,  357,  410. 

Wilkins,  Miss,  150. 

Will.  See  Shall. 

AVords,  choice  and  use  of,  29  ff., 
32  ff.,  125  ff.,  166  ff.,  190,  303  ff., 
312  ff. ; standard  of  usage,  304  ff. ; 
modern  usage,  305  f. ; authority, 
307 ; words  not  in  good  use,  307  ff . ; 
poetical  language,  308;  foreign 
words,  308  f. ; barbarisms,  309; 
colloquialisms  and  slang,  310  f. ; 
provincial  and  dialect  words,  311 ; 
general  principles  of  choice, 
312  ff. ; correctness,  315  ff. ; tech- 
nical terms,  316  ff.,  325  f. ; preci- 
sion, 318  ff. ; derivation,  320  f. ; 
appropriateness,  322  ff. ; expres- 
siveness, 326  ff. ; associations  of, 
327  f.  Exercises,  30  ff.,  373  ff. 
See  Synonyms,  Antonyms,  Deri- 
vation. 

AVordsworth,  32, 128, 137, 140,  170  f., 
180, 185,  407,  409,  415. 

Written  conversation,  how  para- 
graphed, 64. 

Young,  Edward,  407. 


/ 


\ 


■J — 


h: 


